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II. Rhythm. The importance of rhythm for Germanic versification was not recognized by the writers on metrics during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Our knowledge of the nature of rhythm and its relation to metrics has a history like that of the accent. The first attempt at a scientific treatment of rhythm in German versification I believe is found in the Zeitmessung der deutschen Sprache (1802) by the same Joh. H. Voss, who must be considered the strictest advocate of ancient metrics in German versification. In the chapter Vom Verse (p. 170) he says: —

Der gemessene Gang des Verses, worin eine Folge ausdrucksvoller Bewegungen zu einem harmonischen Ganzen sich vereinigt, muss für sich ohne Worte gedacht werden. . . . Ein Versmass also oder ein Metrum heisst uns eine rhythmische Composition der man zutreffende Worte unterlegt.

A revolution was caused in the history of German versification, when, in 1870, R. Westphal published his Theorie der neuhochdeutschen Metrik. Proudly he could say in the preface of the first edition: Bisher sind die rhythmischen Formen der deutschen Poesie noch in kein System gebracht. Selbst den Begriff des Verses zu bestimmen hat bisher unserer Aesthetik nicht gelingen wollen.

He begins his discussion with a careful analysis of rhythm, the nature of which he finds in motion (Bewegung), and which he defines as the order of time in which this equally measured motion takes place. While his predecessors had always treated of single feet, of verses composed of feet, and strophes composed of verses, Westphal discards these terms by saying:

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Wollen wir uns über unsere Metrik wirklich ins Klare bringen, so dürfen wir nicht mehr mit den drei Kategorien: Versfüsse, Verszeilen, Strophen operiren, sondern mit folgenden vieren: mit Tacten, mit rhythmischen Reihen oder Gliedern, mit Perioden, mit Strophen.

Westphal's theories were in their essential features verified and supplemented by Brücke in his little book Die physiologischen Grundlagen der neuhochdeutschen Verskunst (1871). For the history of rhythm the chapter on Versaccent (p. 5) in Brücke's book is especially interesting, for it is here that he makes the discovery of the change of rhythm in the same verse or strophe. He says: der Wechsel des Rhythmus in einem und demselben Systeme der Versification ist nicht nur erlaubt, sondern häufig sogar geboten und Niemand wird z. B. Anstoss daran nehmen, dass in den folgenden Trochäen zuerst der Ictus auf der ersten Arsis der Dipodie liegt, dann aber ein Wechsel eintritt, so dass der Ictus bei sachgemässem Vortrage auf die zweite Arsis der Dipodie fällt:

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Brücke's fundamental discovery was soon afterwards applied to German lyric poetry of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries by W. Brambach in his excellent little pamphlet Ueber die Betonungsweise in der deutschen Lyrik (1871). Brambach shows that without the various changes of rhythm, the rhythmic construction of the German lyrics of the last five centuries cannot be understood, saying: es haben sich Eigenthümlichkeiten in der Anordnung der Hebungen bis in unsere

klassische Zeit erhalten, welche ihrem Ursprung nach auf die Technik des Versbaues im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert, und weiter ins Mittelalter zurückgehen. Auch unsere klassischen Dichter gestatten noch eine zweifache Accentrückung: erstens unterbrechen sie die Folge von Hebung und Senkung durch einfache Umkehr, es wird z. B. eine trochäische Betonung eingemischt, wo das Accentschema eine jambische verlangen würde, zweitens rücken sie Hebungen an einander ohne die entsprechende Senkung einzulegen.

The influence of these theories and discoveries concerning rhythm beginning with Westphal, may also be noticed in the famous recent attempt of Sievers, which aims at a systematization of the rhythmic forms of old Germanic alliterative poetry (cf. Sievers' Altgermanische Metrik). Sievers' theory is known as the Typentheorie, or the theory of certain types of rhythm which he claims to have discovered for the first time. I believe that I am in the position to show that the various forms or 'types' of rhythm, named A, B, C, D, E by Sievers, were already known to Lachmann, as is made evident by the latter's accentuation of the verses of the Hildebrandslied, from which I quote below, giving at the same time Sievers' accentuation of the same verses.

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To be sure, Lachmann does not speak of these various forms of rhythm, nor does he anywhere attempt to systematize them, but he evidently had them in mind when he said in the essay on the Hildebrandslied (cf. Kleinere Schriften, 1.414): So entsteht bei sehr strengem Rhythmus eine grosse Mannigfaltigkeit der Betonungen; zwei bis vier höchst betonte Silben auf Hebungen, und, sind ihrer nur zwei oder drei, noch zwei oder eine ebenfalls starke Hebung, ferner vier schwächere Betonungen auf den übrigen Hebungen, alle diese Betongungen in willkürlicher Ordnung.

I will add in conclusion, that previous to Sievers the various forms or 'types' of rhythm in the alliterative verse had been systematized by Grein in the Deutsche Verskunst (1870) quoted above. He says in § 18: Bei zwei Haupthebungen

sind es die erste und dritte (Type A) oder die erste und vierte (Type E) oder die zweite und vierte (Type B) oder endlich die zweite und dritte Hebung (Type C); and in § 20 he adds: das zunächst aus Otfrid erkannte Gesetz für die Stellung der Haupthebungen (§ 18) gilt aber ebenso auch für die althochdeutsche Alliterationspoesie.

8. An Important Side of Aristophanes' Criticism of Euripides,' by Professor H. Rushton Fairclough, of the Leland Stanford Jr. University.

Aristophanes' most concentrated criticism of Euripides occurs in the Frogs, where he makes Aeschylus recite parodies upon the choral songs and melodies of the younger poet.2 According to the commentators the following points are to be noticed in the parodies: (1) The general confusion of the scenes; (2) the trivial objects and circumstances; (3) the misuse of rhetorical figures; (4) the unnecessary repetitions; (5) metrical and musical innovations.

These additional features, however, should be observed: (a) The prominence given to the sights and sounds of external nature, e.g. vines and grapes; the sea, rivers, and dewy water; the halcyons chattering, the spiders spinning, and the dolphin at his gambles. In Euripides the botanical world plays a much larger part than in Aeschylus or Sophocles. He revels in meadows and grassy glades, forests and groves, fruits and flowers, and some of his plays, like the Bacchae, Ion, and Phoenissae, are permeated with the beauties of hill and field and dale. More varied and abundant, too, are his references to birds, insects, and animals, wild and domestic, and in some of these allusions he displays a peculiar tenderness. More conspicuous, too, in him are streams and rivers, which are often invested with considerable sentimental interest.

(b) The invocation and the characterizations of night (ll. 1331, 1335, 1337). Some of the most beautiful characterizations of night and day to be found in all Greek literature are in Euripides. Picturesque night scenes are also frequent. (c) A reference to Euripides fondness for various expressions for darkness and light.

(d) A hit at Euripides' fondness for color (v. πppais kvaveμßóxóis, l. 1318). Euripides indulges in more frequent references to color and has a wider range of color-vocabulary than either Aeschylus or Sophocles. He is fond, too, of contrasting different hues."

1 This paper will appear in full as a chapter in The Attitude of the Greek Tragedians toward Nature, published by Rowsell and Hutchison, Toronto, Canada.

2 Ran. 1301 ff.

8 δρόσος of water is very common in Euripides.

His allusions to the horse, cow, dog, and sheep are nearly twice as frequent as those of Aeschylus and Sophocles together.

5 Cf. Ion 179, El. 151, Iph T. 1089, Tro. 669, etc.

6 Tro. 847, Ion 1150, Fr. 593, El. 54, Or. 174.

7 Rhes. 41-3, Tro. 543, 547, Alc. 450, Iph. Aul 6.

8 ν. κνεφαῖος, 1. 1350.

Besides kvepaios (found once in Aesch. Pr. 1029), Euripides has also used λυγαῖος, γνοφώδης, ἀμβλωπες αὐγαί, ἀμβλυωπός, ζοφερός, and ἀμολγὸν νύκτα, expressions not found in Aesch. or Sophocles. On the other hand, Euripides is even more lavish than Sophocles in his use of terms that denote brilliance and splendor, and he has a wider vocabulary. Cf. Iph. Aul. 222-5, Heracl. 855, Cy. 16, Hec. 151, H. F. 361, 573, Hel. 179, 1501.

The sentimentalism, therefore, for which Aristophanes assails Euripides consists largely in a proneness to minute and toying descriptions of external nature. Euripides lived at a time when the old Greek spirit was giving way to the new, and men were becoming more reflective and introspective. There were also peculiarities in Euripides' own life and circumstances which must have largely affected his tone and character. He was a recluse, of artistic sensibilities and wedded to books. Hence his sentimentalism.

The Greeks were not a sentimental people, but had a practical, commonsense, objective way of looking at things. Aristophanes, a man of the world, regarded the new spirit as unnatural and unmanly, and though he himself appreciated keenly the beauties of nature, he did not regard tragedy as a fitting vehicle for the expression of such sentiments.

The most romantic of Euripides' plays, the Bacchae,

a drama which exhibits

a deep love for nature, - was composed amid the wilds of Macedonia, where the poet's spirit had free range and the emotions were unchecked in expression by the sneers of hostile critics. The Bacchae and the Frogs have much in common, and no doubt Aristophanes had learnt much of the character of the Bacchae before that play was exhibited in Athens.

The Secretary then read an invitation to a reception on Wednesday, July 8, extended to the Association by Professor and Mrs. Albert Harkness. The invitation was accepted.

The Committee, consisting of Professors Allen, Gudeman, and Platner, which was appointed to report a recommendation concerning a uniform standard of Latin Orthography for the use of School Textbooks, then reported through its chairman, Professor Allen.

Discussion of the report was postponed.
Adjourned at 6.10 P.M.

EVENING SESSION.

At eight o'clock the members, together with a large number of the citizens of Providence, assembled in the Lyman gymnasium to listen to the address of Professor March, the President of the Association.' The speaker was introduced by Professor Albert Harkness, of Brown University, who welcomed the Association on the occasion of its second meeting at Providence.

9. The Filological Study of Literature, by Professor Francis A. March, of Lafayette College, President of the Association.

1 In recognition of his distinguished contributions to the study of language, Professor March was elected at the last meeting (see PROCEEDINGS, Vol. XXVI., p. liv) to a second term of service as President. Professor March was one of the founders of the Association, and its President in 1873-74.

The speaker referd to and commented on filological studies of literature, mostly found in the publications of the Association, belonging to the following classes.

STUDIES FOR THE ACCUMULATION OF SCIENTIFIC DATA.

1. The enumeration and classification of the words in literary masterpieces according to the grammatical forms; as, so many hundred subjunctivs, or conjunctions, and the like.

2. Similar studies of the historical etymology; as, so many Anglo-Saxon words, so many Norman, and the like.

3. The once-used words.

4. The oft-used words.

5. The words used for the first time.

6. Words of sensation, for colors, sounds, and the like, to build up the world of a story as it appeard to the author.

7. Accumulation of descriptivs applied to a natural object, as the ocean, the sun, and the like.

8. Studies of syntax, classification and enumeration of the different kinds of sentences, periods, paragrafs, in a literary work.

9. Studies of rhythm and meter; classification and counting up to establish authorship, as in Shakespeare and Homer.

STUDIES OF INTERPRETATION.

10. Of simpl sentences as gems of thought. (a) To clear up the precise meaning of the words; (b) to gather up the accumulated associations of the vital words.

11. Of the whole utterances of characters in pictures of life, as of Hamlet, Caliban, to realize the characters.

12. Of the whole works of an author, to realize his character and his environment.

13. Of the literature of a nation to read the character of the nation.

14. The comparativ study of national literatures to lern the character of man, his best, his worst.

Most of these essays ar naturally works of curious investigation and reserch. The scolars who produce them labor harder on books for simpl utility, lerned editions of important literary works, concordances, grammars, and dictionaries. Child's Ballads, Furness's Shakespeare, Abbott's Shakespearian Grammar, Schmidt's Shakespeare Lexicon, Murray's Historical Dictionary of the English Language, the greatest filological work of our generation, — bring the filological labors of hundreds of investigators within easy reach of all students of literature and language.

The dictionary of English dialects, the first number of which is just printed at Oxford, is another great work for the science of language. The complete concordance and dictionary of Chaucer, which the Early English Text Society has been so many years cherishing, is at last redy in manuscript, a more valuabl work than even the Shakespeare Dictionary. The next thing is to get it printed. We shal soon hav the opportunity to make our subscriptions for it.

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