superior to our "heart-of-oak." Foreign oak is of much quicker growth than English, and is susceptible of being felled, and yielding proper plank, while yet in a sound and vigorous state of vegetation; whereas ours does not arrive at similar dimensions till it has reached, or passed, the full of its strength. In fact, fifty years may suffice for raising a foreign tree to a magnitude which the British one will take nearly a century and a half to accomplish. Owing to this, a deleterious change has been perpetrated in the "timbered state" of the nation ; for acorns from the north of Europe and America have been extensively sown by our landed proprietors, for producing trees of a rapid growth, and the spurious produce has been already used under the prevaricating denomination of English oak. To counteract the evil effect of this "golden-egg" line of impolicy, and insure a never-failing supply, every patriot should devote close attention to the subject: the glory and safety of the country both demand that permanent prosperity in every respect should be secured to the Navy. This can only be effectually done by making it an object of interest for individuals to plant and preserve trees; and to turn away the fuel-cutters, game-keepers, and deer from our crown lands, in order to replace them with persons whose duty it should be to preserve woods, instead of destroying them. The proper choice of soil for planting, the draining of public forests, and the propagation of underwood, are not so widely looked to, as the health and growth of the oaks require; and all timber trees intended for use should be felled so soon as they have attained maturity; for when an oak, or any deciduous tree, is dead at its main-top, the centre of the trunk is sure to be in a state of either actual or incipient decay; and it is not safe, under this clear indication, to use any part of it for purposes where durability or strength are required. The full growth will be accomplished at different periods from semination, according to site and soil; after this period, the decay is in proportion to the time of arriving at perfection, agreeably to the laws of animal as well as vegetable life. Independent of fortuitous circumstances, the period of maturity for the British oak is gained in about a hundred and forty years. From the quality this tree has of striking its roots downwards, it seems to be particularly adapted for hedge rows, and in planting, the adage should be kept in mind,— "Set them at All-hallow tide and command them to prosper : Agreeably to the theory of Sir Humphry Davy, which was obligingly confirmed to us in conversation by that eminent philosopher, the trees most abundant in charcoal and earthy matter, are the most permanent; and those that contain the largest portion of gaseous elements, the most destructible. According to this system, the chesnut and the oak among our own trees are pre-eminent as to durability; and the chesnut affords even rather more carbonaceous matter than the oak, yet the difference is so slight, that it is merely distinguishable in old specimens, in that the pores of the alburnum in the oak are easily discernible, but being more minute in the chesnut, glasses are required to see them. In consequence of the slow decay of the hearts of these woods, they are supposed to attain an age, under favourable circumstances, little short of a thousand years; but the beech, the ash, and the sycamore, probably, are limited to less than half that period. Peter Kalm, who visited the forests of North America upwards of eighty years ago, remarked— "Some trees are more inclined to putrify than others. The tupelo-tree (nyssa), the tulip-tree (liriodendron), and the sweet gum-tree (liquid amber), became rotten in a short time. The hiccory did not take much time, and the black oak fell sooner to pieces than the white oak, but this was owing to circumstances. If the bark remained on the wood, it was for the greatest part rotten, and entirely eaten by worms within, in the space of six, eight, or ten years, so that nothing was to be found but a reddish brown dust. But if the bark was taken off, they would often lie twenty years before they were entirely rotten. The suddenness of a tree's growth, the bigness of its pores, and the frequent changes of heat and wet in summer, cause it to rot sooner. To this it must be added, that all sorts of insects make holes into the stems of the fallen trees, and by that means the moisture and the air get into the tree, which must of course forward putrefaction. Many of the trees here have deciduous or annual leaves. Many of them begin to rot whilst they are yet standing and blooming. This forms the hollow trees, in which many animals make their nests and places of refuge.” Next to oak, the timber which we would fain see more largely cultivated is the chesnut. This noble and useful tree abounded formerly in the woods and chaces around London; and the roofs of Westminster Hall and King's Chapel at Cambridge, are sufficient proofs of its durability; indeed, the beams of the latter appear so new, that on making inquiry as to their age, we were surprised by the reply that they were cut in Essex, from the estates of the College, when the structure was erected. This timber should be grown in a suitable soil and climate, that the alburnum vessels may not relinquish their office too soon, and render the wood shaky, by unequal shrinking. This effect is known, by observing when the tree is cut down, what proportion the rings of sap-wood bear to those of heart. From the downward striking of the roots, this tree appears adapted for loamy soils; but it can also be reared on the sides of hills to advantage; and the opinion has been received through all ages, that though the low lands produce the stateliest trees, the strongest timber is grown in drier and more exposed situations. In the former, the increased growth is accompanied by an expansion of the vegetable fibre, by which the annual rings are softened, and become more permeable by air, water, and heat. The mention of chesnut naturally reminds us of the walnut, as they may be planted together with benefit; and although the brittleness of its wood incapacitates it for "naval timber," the service it is of, in its universal employment for fire-arms, calls forth our thanks for the numerous plantations which we observe are now replacing the heavy demands of the late wars. * We are here merely citing a general rule: we have met with timber of much more advanced ages than any instanced to us by Sir Humphrey. In Egypt we procured boards of sycamore, in an apparently fresh state, which may have been cut more than 3000 years ago! And these were without the thick coating of painted plaster with which the wooden idols and mummy cases are covered. The beech is a magnificent tree of rapid growth, and being of a hardy nature, is readily reared from its mast, in strong grounds, unfit for other cultivation. The yellow beech, being of a fine grain, and not apt to rend, is excellent for plank, if well managed after cutting down : but a few months in the ground may render a log of it in the bark useless. It therefore requires either to be speedily dried, or else kept altogether in water; nor is the sap-wood easily distinguished from the mature, being of the same colour. There are several species of elm common to this country, but they may be chiefly divided into the montana or broad-leaved, and the campestres or narrow-leaved. The former being all heart, is best adapted for naval purposes, as keel pieces, floor timbers, and bottom plank, for which it is highly capable by its strength and toughness; but it quickly decays above water. The second is valuable for forming dead eyes, and block shells, for which its elasticity and indisposition to rend, especially suit it. The ash braves the wintry winds better than the elm, when it enjoys a sufficient depth of soil; its timber is largely used, but in the navy principally for sweeps, oars, and handspikes. The sycamore, or more properly the maple, grows to a large size, and its soft white wood is useful for turning; it grows in light dry soils, near the sea-shore, where it resists both the spray and the winds, and is easily propagated from its keys. The alder is useful for piles, pumps, sluices, and all works intended to be constantly under water, as it has there the property of hardening. The quick-beam, or service-tree, with several others, affords woods of a fine but soft grain, which are useful in detail. The willow is a very numerous family in Great Britain, as may be seen by the magnificent work recently printed by the Duke of Bedford, in which is a botanical description of no less than 160 of the genus Salix; a tribe which the late Sir James Smith calls vast, important, and most natural." The largest is the Russelliana, of which the one called Johnson's willow, near Lichfield, was thirteen feet in girth, and sixty in height, previous to its destruction in 1829. From its easy culture and rapid growth, it is a profitable tree, being largely used in various important handicrafts; it affords the best charcoal for making gunpowder: and the quantity of charcoal yielded by a wood, is held to be a tolerably accurate indication of its durability. The red willow is employed in the construction of mill water-wheels, and other purposes where tough, light, and durable boarding is required; or where there is exposure to blows and friction. Of its naval properties Mr. Matthew says,― "The use of red willows, as timbers of vessels, has been of long standing in this part of Scotland, and has proved its long endurance and excellent adaptation. By reason of its lightness, pliancy, elasticity, and toughness, it is, we think, the best, without exception, for the formation of small, fastsailing war-vessels. We are pretty certain that our Navy Board would not have cause to regret trial of it in a long, low, sharp schooner, of sufficient breadth to stand up under great press of sail, moulded as much as possible to combine great stability with small resistance from the water, and when in quick motion to be buoyant-especially not to dip forward-provided it could be procured not too old, and free from rot, large knots, and cross grain; a very little attention in the cultivation would afford it of the finest bends, and clean and fresh. Our Navy Board have received some slight teaching from Transatlantic brethren, of the superior sailing of fir-constructed vessels, to those of oak, the result of their superior lightness, pliancy, and elasticity. "The writer of this has also had experience of two vessels, one of oak and the other of larch, on the same voyages, at the same time, and has found the latter superior in sailing to the former, in a degree greater than the difference of build could account for. From the superior elasticity and lightness of the willow, even to larch, the lightest and most elastic of the fir tribe, we should expect that vessels of it would outstrip those of fir, at least of Scots or red pine, as much as the latter do those of oak; and that, from this greater elasticity and lightness, they would move through the water, yielding to the resistance and percussions of the waves, compared to those of oak, as a thing of life to a dead block. For vessel-timbers, this wood requires to be used alone; as, when mixed with other kinds less pliant or elastic, the latter have to withstand nearly all the impetus or strain, and are thence liable to be broken, or, from the vessel yielding more at one place than another, she is apt to strain and become leaky." Of another tree, which seems scarcely to claim forest rank, the author says, -- "The laburnum (Cytiscus) is the most valuable timber this country produces. It is equally deep in colour, and takes as fine a polish as rosewood, having, also, something slightly pellucid in the polished surface. From its extreme hardness, it is much better adapted for use than mahogany, not being indented or injured by blows or rough treatment. We are acquainted with no other timber of home produce so little liable to decay. The largeleaved variety, in rich warm soils, acquires a diameter of a foot or a foot and a half, and grows rapidly till it fall into seed bearing. Its usual very stunted growth is partly owing to less valuable faster-growing trees overtopping it. Were it planted alone, and trained to proper curve, it might be profitably reared for the upper timbers (the part where decay commences) of small vessels: it has the thinnest covering of sap wood of any of our timber trees. The extreme beauty and richness of its clustered depending blossoms is a considerable injury to its growth, as it is often broken and despoiled of the branches on this account." The utility and treatment of the whole tribe of pines are so duly appreciated, that we need scarcely dwell upon them, except to mention that the pitch pine, that gigantic lord of American wilds, affords the best known planking for ships' bottoms. To the adhesive quality of this timber, the safety of that fine ship the Gibraltar, of 80 guns, has been attributed: having struck upon a rock in the Mediterranean, she was found to have brought home a fragment of it, of about ten tons weight, sticking in her garboard strake. Mr. Matthew treats the " genus pinus" at some length, and notices the endless varieties depending upon climate, soil, and exposure. (To be concluded in our next Number.) RECOLLECTIONS OF A VISIT TO WARSAW IN 1828. BY A FIELD OFFICER. SUCH universal interest is shown in the present day for the fate of that nation whose capital I visited in the year 1828, that I have thought a record of the various circumstances which came under my own immediate observation upon that occasion, may be acceptable to the readers of the United Service Journal. I have seen the Notes on Warsaw by H. D. J. taken in 1823, and inserted in the April Number of this Journal, and I beg to assure H. D. J. that the same marked and condescending attention which he received from His Imperial Highness the Grand Duke Constantine at that time, was continued to myself and fellow-travellers in the same handsome and flattering manner on the occasion of our visit in 1828. In the month of July of that year, myself and a party of officers after leaving Moscow, and travelling for the space of twelve days and nights, arrived at Warsaw. On the journey our carriages had been so much injured by the furious driving, which is often the case in that country, that at Smolensko we were detained a considerable time, in order to afford them the necessary repairs. Each carriage was drawn by four horses abreast, driven by a coachman in a somewhat singular costume, his dress being composed of a sheep-skin, the wool turned inwards, for a coat, with blue-striped or white, cotton trowsers, his breast covered with a long and shaggy beard, and his hair cut very short behind, and generally clean shaved on the upper part of the back of the neck; a black hat, broad at the top, with broad band and large steel buckle, which he invariably takes off to every person he meets on the road. Thus equipped, he takes his place on the box of the carriage, and, generally speaking, drives well and with great velocity, more especially on descending or ascending a hill. The pace on descending is tolerably moderate at first, but about half-way down, the horses are pressed into a gallop, their pace increases, and they pass the Corduroy Bridge, which is generally over some little watercourse, at the bottom, at their greatest speed; this velocity is continued up the hill in front as far as their strength will carry them, being urged on all the time by the cracking of the whip and the animated cheering of the driver. After resting a short time, the process is repeated. They do not consider their horses much: on one occasion we travelled in the night with the same horses a distance of fifty-one English miles, which was performed in little more than five hours and a half. There is something in the vigorous charge, if I may so call it, by four horses extremely exciting. The strained muscle, the swelled and throbbing vein, the eye of fire and flowing mane have a beautiful effect when thus abreast. The animating cheers of the driver are answered by the quick-drawn breath and increased exertion on the part of the noble animals, and when thus at full speed, with their distended nostrils and varied attitudes, they have a most classical and beautiful appearance, and, in fact, are an exquisite living model of the celebrated works of the ancients. The horses themselves are many of them of great beauty, of Arabian cast, and an eye of fire. The near and off horses are trained to have the head inclined outwards and drawn towards the ground, so that the varied action of the four, arising from their different positions, causes them always to be grouped in a very picturesque |