force his comrade with new strength, could not have acted together with so much concert, without communicating their project; and it is impossible, that they could have done this without the aid of articulate language.

"The education of brutes is accomplished mostly by the language of action. It is imitation, which accustoms them to most of the movements, which are necessary to the preservation of the natural life of the animal. But, when the cares and the objects of foresight and fear have greatly multiplied with the danger, this is no longer sufficient; the instruction becomes more complicated, words become necessary to convey it; without an articulate language, the education of a fox could not be completed. It is certain from observation, that before having been able to instruct themselves by personal experience, the young foxes on leaving the burrow, for the first time, are more distrustful, and more cautious in the places where war is often made on them, than the old ones where the snares have never been spread. This observation, which is incontestable, proves absolutely the need they have of language; for, without it, how could they acquire the knowledge of proper precautions, which knowledge supposes a succession of facts known, of comparisons made, of judgments rendered? It appears then, that it is absurd to doubt, that brutes have among them a language, by means of which they transmit ideas, the communication of which is necessary to them. But the invention of words being limited by the need one has of them, we see that language must be very limited among beings, who are always in a state of action, of fear, or of sleep."*

When one has frequent occasions of observing animals, he learns to understand their language, and knows the different inflexions assumed by the cry of

*Lettres philosophiques sur l'intelligence et la perfectibilité des animaux, par C. G. Leroy à Paris, 1802, p. 82, 87.

the cock, the chicken, and other birds, according to the sentiment or the idea which they wish to express. I saw a flock of ducks utter confused sounds with all the marks of inquietude; their singular movements fixed my attention; I could not doubt, that they were occupied with something which greatly interested them; their inquietude became every moment more visible; at length a duck, that had run from a distance. at full speed, threw herself into the court. All her companions received her with marks of the most lively joy; all approached her, extended their heads towards her, stooping down, wagging their tails, and making a sort of reverence. The quacking became more and more animated, and all finished by retiring, much pleased, into their cover. Now, will any one tell me, that these ducks did not speak to each other? I am informed of all the wants of my dogs by the different sounds which they utter. My monkey manifests by sounds, always modified, the most varied wants, sentiments, affections, and ideas. There are none, even to my domestics, who do not understand his language.

This language is natural to animals; it is inherent in their natures; it is the same in all the individuals of the same species; every individual learns it, all speak it well, and all understand it perfectly. The attentive observer will easily convince himself, that this language is much more extended, especially in the more intelligent species, than is commonly supposed.

But what proves still more in favor of a faculty in animals for language, is their aptitude to understand the arbitrarily formed languages of mankind. All our domestic animals furnish evidence in favor of this last assertion. They learn to comprehend, not only insu lated words or articulate sounds, but entire periods expressing several ideas. I have made, on this subject, many observations. I have often designedly spoken of objects which might interest my dog, avoiding to name him, and without allowing to escape any

intimation or any gesture, which could have awakened his attention. Nevertheless he expressed pleasure or chagrin according to the occasion; finally, he manifested by his conduct, that he had well understood that the conversation concerned him. I had brought a female dog from Vienna to Paris; at the end of very little time she understood French as well as German. I have assured myself of this, by uttering before her whole sentences in both languages.

It remains for me to examine to what extent comparative anatomy confirms these observations, by the examination of the cranium and of the head of animals.

On the Organ of the Faculty of Language in Animals.

In man, the brain, or rather the inferior anterior convolutions, which at present interest us, extend themselves, ordinarily, about two inches from the median line toward the right and left; in such a manner, that the whole width of the anterior inferior surface of the human brain is ordinarily about four inches. In the horse and the ox, it is nearly two and a half inches; and, in fact, the forehead of animals is much less broad than that of man. The whole of this cerebral mass, situated on the orbitar plate and against the forehead, is composed of several organs, such as those of educability, of the faculty of localities, memory of persons, of words and of language, of the faculties of tones, of numbers, and perhaps those of order and time. Now, according as a species is found endowed with more or fewer of these organs, its cerebral mass will extend more or less on the sides, and the inferior anterior surface of the cranium will be more or less large. In man, the ball of the eye, or the orbit, except its external edge, is covered by the inferior convolutions of the anterior lobes of the brain, and the superior plate

of the orbit is very large, more or less extended toward the side, and more or less flattened or prominent, according as the convolutions are more or less large or developed. In the monkey, nature has remained faithful to the same type; but the anterior parts of the brain shrink much more than in our species; a much larger part of the eyeball is placed without the encephalon. The superior orbitar plate is not only less in size, but also more spherical in the interior of the cranial cavity; the effect of which is, that, making allowance for proportion, the brain of the monkey terminates forward more in a cone or an oval, than that of man. Pl. LXXXIX. fig. 1. the interior of the base of a human cranium; fig. 2, open base of the cranium of the monkey, shows that the inferior middle convolutions of the anterior lobes are much more excavated, that is, much less developed toward the orbitar plate, than in man. The orbits of the ape (guenon) and of the ourang outang are almost as deep as those of man; which proves, how much smaller the inferior surface of the anterior lobes is in these animals, than in man. In the papions, the mandrils, and the pongoes, more than half the eyeball is found outside of the brain. Compare the crania of man with the crania of all the species of monkeys; Pl. lxxv. LXXXVIII. with Pl. LXVII. fig. 1, the cranium of the pongo, fig. 2, cranium of the papio, and Pl. LXXIX. fig. 1, the cranium of the sagouin, fig. 2, the cranium of the capuchin monkey, fig. 3, the cranium of the troglodyte monkey, fig. 4, the cranium of the ourang outang. Compare the brains of the patas monkey and of the ourang outang, Pl. xxxiv. and Pl. lxxvii. the brain of an ape (guenon), fig. 1, with all the plates of the human brain.

In the dog, it is only the posterior internal part of the ball, which touches the brain; more than two thirds of the eye are found placed outside of the encephalon. In several other animals, the whole ball is found outside of the brain, and more forward. This

takes place in the badger, the beaver, the pig, for the part of the cranium which, in these species, seems, at first view, to constitute the superior orbit, forms, in fact only the frontal sinuses. See Pl. LXVI. LXX. LXXII. the two heads of dogs, LXXXI. fig. 1, and fig 2; in general all the heads, and, Pl. xxxIII. the brains of the kangarou, fig. 3, of the tiger and lion, fig. 4, and 5, Pl. III. the brain of the calf; Pl. xiv. the brain of the sheep; Pl. LXXVII. fig. 2, the brain of the cat.

In birds there is always as much more of cerebral mass placed above the internal part of the ball, as the species has more aptitude for language. Compare Pl. LXXXI. fig. 3, the pie; fig. 4, the starling; fig. 5, the great raven; fig. 6, the parrot, with the gallinacea, Pl. LVII. and the brain of the chicken, Pl. 1. fig. 2.

This small number of examples will enable the reader to conceive, not only, that animals may have among them a determinate language, but also how they are capable of comprehending those arbitrary sounds, which compose our languages, how they are competent to seize a series of ideas expressed by a period.

It even appears, that the aptitude for language, possessed by animals is destined, not only to subserve their proper wants, but also to render them capable of understanding the signification of sounds, and the language of other animals and of man.

Philosophical Reflections on Spoken Language.

Since Condillac, philosophers have exhausted themselves in reasonings on the influence, which signs in general, and spoken language in particular, exercise on our ideas and our knowledge. They maintain, that, without signs we should hardly think; that it is only articulate words which can lead us to abstract ideas; that signs and language develope our faculties, give birth to our inclinations, our sentiments, affections,