Aristotle and Galen in their original tongue. He translated parts of both writers into the Latin, and in a style remarkable for its purity and elegance. Erasmus, sending a copy of one of the translations to a friend, says, "I present you with the works of Galen, now, by the help of Linacre, speaking better Latin than they even before spoke Greek." On his return to Oxford he received the degree of M.D. He there read temporary lectures in medicine, and taught the Greek language. His reputation soon attracted the attention of Henry VII., who called him to court, and confided to his care both the health and education of his son, Prince Arthur. A striking evidence of his medical skill is preserved in the wellknown fact of his warning to his friend Lilly, the eminent grammarian, that if he allowed an operation to be performed on him according to the advice he had received, it would be fatal. The warning was not taken, and Lilly died. We must not omit to add to this brief account of a remarkable and highly estimable man, that he was one of the first to give England the benefit of the general European revival of classical learning.

But a still more important claim to the gratitude of his countrymen was to signalize the latter years of Linacre than any we have yet mentioned. Circumstances, of a terrible nature at the time, forwarded the developement of the great physician's plan. The sweating sickness raged with fearful violence in London prior to the year 1518. The infected died within three hours after the first appearance of the disease; half the population in many places were swept away; the administration of justice was suspended; the Court itself shifted about from one part to another, in undisguised alarm. Linacre now appears to have opened to Cardinal Wolsey his scheme of a College of Physicians, to exercise a superintendence over the education and general fitness of all medical practitioners. The great Cardinal was favourable, and recommended it to his royal master; and on the 23rd of September, 1518, letters patent were granted, incorporating Linacre and others in a "perpetual Commonalty, or Fellowship, of the Faculty of Physic." The first meeting of the new society took place at Linacre's house, No. 5, Knight Rider Street, a building known as the Stonehouse, which he gave to the College, and which still belongs to it. In about 1522 the King's charter was confirmed by Parliament, and the power of licensing practitioners transferred from the Church to the College. Various acts have been subsequently passed, regulating its constitution and rights, which we pass over as being interesting rather to the medical than to the general reader. At present the College consists of two orders-Fellows and Licentiates; the latter consisting of all those persons who have received the College licence to practise, and the former chosen, from the Licentiates, to form the governing body of the Society. From the latter of course are elected the President, the Censors, and other officers of the College. In the "Regulations," issued December 22, 1838, it is stated that "Every candidate for a diploma in medicine, upon presenting himself for examination, shall produce satisfactory evidence-1. Of unimpeached moral character; 2. Of having completed the twenty-sixth year of his age; and, 3. Of having devoted himself for five years at least to the study of medicine," both in theory and practice, and in all its branches. A "competent knowledge of Greek" is desired, but not indispensable; the College "cannot, however, on any account dispense with a familiar knowledge of the Latin language, as constituting an essential part of a liberal

education." The examinations, conducted at certain periods before the board of Censors, are equally open to foreigners and natives; and the College is “prepared to regard in the same light, and address by the same appellation, all who have obtained its diploma, whether they have graduated elsewhere or not."

About the period of the accession of Charles I., the College removed from Knight Rider Street to the bottom of Amen Corner, where they took a house from the dean and chapter of St. Paul's, of which they purchased the leasehold. Here the most illustrious of English medical discoverers, Harvey, erected an elegantly furnished convocation-room, and a museum in the garden, filled with choice books from his own library, and furnished with surgical instruments. In this very convocation-room were most probably delivered the Lumleian lectures; in one of which, about 1615, he is supposed to have first promulgated the great theory of the circulation of the blood, which completely revolutionized the art of medicine, but which he did not fully demonstrate till 1628. To their honour be it spoken, the members of the College appear to have supported Harvey throughout all the trials which this new heresy in physic brought upon its author. His practice fell off considerably; the popular feeling was greatly excited against him; and altogether he suffered so much, that he determined in the bitterness of his spirit to publish no more; and it was only by great persuasion that one of his friends, Sir George Ent, obtained the manuscript of his Exercitations on the Generation of Animals,' for publication, after it had lain for many years useless. No wonder, therefore, that the illustrious physician was gratified when the College placed his statue in their hall during his lifetime. The 2nd of February, 1652, was also a proud day to Harvey, for it exhibited the depth of his gratitude. On that day he invited all the members to a splendid entertainment; and then placed before them a deed of gift of the entire premises he had built and furnished-convocation-room, museum, and library. He subsequently (in 1656, or the year before his death) increased these donations by the assignment of a farm, of the then value of 567. per annum, his paternal estate, to defray the expenses of an anniversary feast, and for the establishment of an annual Latin oration. During the long period that Harvey was connected with the College, he appears to have taken an active part in their proceedings, some of which, in connexion with the examination of "empericks," present a very curious insight into the delusions practised upon the people. Our notice of the more interesting cases on record cannot perhaps be better introduced than by a curious. extract we have chanced upon in a tract in the British Museum, published during Harvey's life, and which describes with remarkable minuteness the many varieties of character that constituted the great host of pretenders with which the College had then to deal. It is long, but we cannot persuade ourselves to injure its completeness by mutilation :-"The first that we meet with, who will needs be physicians, are those who truly are not educated and instructed to this, but prompt of nature; whose genius leads them into it, say they, and are cut out and configurated for it; whose base inclination and the tickling itch of gain is the ascendant; daring anything, which they have heard to have profited others, without any disquisition, cognition, and discrimination of causes. . . . Others, that are vulgar physicians, had rather heal vulgar only, and to these they give their counsels: some also of favour only, and being asked; but the most

part for the ambition of honour, that they might be esteemed of wise men, possess this innate kind of vice. Of the same sort are those deceivers who would seem to be rich, and therefore give all their ministrations gratis, to the destruction or casual health of the people. To these succeed they who covet not monies, but gifts, lest they should seem below the condition of great and noble men, and deserve nothing, they say, but do it for a common good. The like to these are they who confess truly they are not physicians, but have great skill in physic, and have their secrets and receipts from kings, emperors, queens, and great ladies: for these are wont to suborn the middle sort of people, which do extol the price of the medicine. Others there are who turn themselves into physicians, who have been old soldiers, and now left the wars; (these) brag of and show their wounds, and thereby think and persuade themselves they have got great experience. Some of the clergy also, priests, and poor scholars, that have nothing else to do, must needs turn physicians. Some, silenced ministers, and ousted of their benefices, lay hold on Physic, and commit force and violence to her body; that if one fails, t'other may hold; and think their Latin, and their coat, the grand charter to entitle them to the practice in physic. There are a generation also who pretend to Astrology, Chiromancy, (and why not to Coscinomancy?) to Physiognomy too; (and who) dare tamper with physic, and by schemes, angles, and configurations, predict not only diseases, but the cure also, and do think themselves able physicians; and the rather, because they are now masters of art in, and instituted by, the heavenly Academy and College of Stars. Others scribble upon paper, (not the innoxious words of Salomon) but characters, charms as they call them, whereby diseases as well as devils are chased away, and cross themselves before and behind, lest the devil should take them away, writing powerful words. There are also who are well known in divers idioms, and pretend to speak Chaldaic, Arabic, or Dalmatiac, and are loaden with many arts. . . . . Many of these know nothing less than to make the philosopher's stone, and carry about them propagable mines, with a perpetual ferment. There are they again who pretend to be baptized Jews (more wicked than the not baptized), who have learned from the Cabala to mortify Mercury diverse ways, and also to prepare poisons variously, which are good against all diseases, and many more. They brag of the Hebrew tongue to contain the fundaments of all sciences and the grand secrets of states and commonwealths, and are big with the pre-knowledge of futures. They often cite their Rabbines, the book of Nebolohu, with the little Key of Salomon, from whence they can read things past as well as to come. Others assert the medical art to be hereditary, and to run in the line of their own progeny, although they be all fools or knaves. And then at last, if these cannot be accounted of among men, they have a sure card they think to play, and to be sure they will be received among women; and to that end brag of the cosmetic faculty, of sweet ointments, oils, and perfumes, and the art to preserve their beauty, or repair it if ruined; and a hundred to one if they have not a fling at the celestial stone, too, of Armenia, whereby they can cure a large catalogue of diseases; for these are cut out of the same hide with Greeks and Jews; anything will serve to cheat the credulous vulgar of their money."* Alas! how true the aphorism remains to this day! The proceedings The Vanity of the Craft of Physic,' by Noah Briggs, Chymiatrophilos, 1651.

against these and carlier empirics were collected by Dr. Goodall in 1684, and added to his work entitled 'The Royal College of Physicians.' It commences soon after the foundation of the society, and continues till some few years after Harvey's death. A great number of persons were examined during this period; the examination generally ending in a fine, and in an order to practise no more. Contumacious individuals were not unfrequently imprisoned. We extract a few of the cases :

"In the fourth year of this King's (Edward VI.) reign, one Grig, a poulterer. of Surrey, taken among the people for a prophet, in curing of divers diseases by word and prayer, and saying he would not take money, &c., was, by command of the Earl of Warwick and other of the council, set on a scaffold in the town of Croydon, in Surrey, with a paper on his breast, whereon was written his deceitful and hypocritical dealings; and after that, on the 8th of September, set on a pillory in Southwark." "Of the like counterfeit physician," says Stow, "have I noted (in the Summary of my Chronicles, anno 1382) to be set on horseback, his face to the horse's tail, the same tail in his hand as a bridle, a collar" (not of SS) "about his neck, a whetstone on his breast, and so led through the City of London with ringing of basons, and banished."

In Queen Elizabeth's reign, "Paul Buck, a very impudent and ignorant empiric," was sent to the Compter in Wood Street; upon which no less a personage than Sir Francis Walsingham wrote to request his discharge. Other noble persons also interfered in his favour, but without effect. Sir Francis frequently appears in the light of a petitioner for oppressed "empericks," in behalf too of her Majesty. He thus writes to Dr. Gifford concerning one Margaret Kennix:— "Whereas heretofore by her Majesty's commandment upon the pitiful complaint of Margaret Kennix I wrote unto Dr. Symonds, the president of your college and fellowship of physicians within the City, signifying how that it was her Highness's pleasure that the poor woman should be permitted by you quietly to practise and minister to the curing of diseases and wounds, by the means of certain simples, in the application whereof it seemeth God hath given her an especial knowledge, to the benefit of the poorer sort, and chiefly for the better maintenance of her impotent husband and charge of family, who wholly depend of the exercise of her skill. Forasmuch as I am now informed she is restrained either by you, or some other of your college, contrary to her Majesty's pleasure, to practise any longer her said manner of ministering of simples, as she hath done, whereby her undoing is likely to ensue, unless she may be permitted to continue the use of her knowledge on that behalf; I shall therefore desire you forthwith to take order amongst yourselves for the re-admitting her into the quiet exercise of her small talent, lest by the renewing of her complaint to her Majesty through your hard dealing towards her, you procure further inconvenience thereby to yourself than perhaps you should be willing to fall out." In these last lines, the wilful daughter of Henry VIII. speaks as plainly as if she had herself written and signed them. The College, however, while highly respectful, was exceedingly firm, pleading its rights, and the utility of their preservation for the general good. In this, as in similar cases, they gained the day. "Simon Forman, a pretended astrologer and great impostor, appearing before the president and censors, confessed that he had practised physic in England

sixteen years, and two years in London.

He boasted that he made use of no other help for the discovery of distemper but his Ephemerides, and that by the heavenly signs, aspects and constellations of the planets, he could presently know every disease. Being examined in the principles of astronomy as well as in the elements of physic, he answered so absurdly and ridiculously, that it caused great sport and mirth amongst the auditors." He was fined and reprimanded, but, continuing to practise, the College committed him to prison two or three years afterwards, when he was discharged by the Lord Keeper (Burghley). In a few months he was again imprisoned, and when he left the gaol, "he fled to Lambeth as a place of protection against the College officers;" and on his refusing once more to appear before the College, he was prosecuted at law.

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Among the other cases brought before the Council in the reigns of Elizabeth, James, and Charles I., was that of Francis Anthony, who killed patients with an "aurum potabile;" Mrs. Woodhouse, a famous empiric living at Kingsland, who being "examined of the virtues of medicines, and asked first her opinion of pepper, she said it was cold: violets and strawberries, cold and dry," and who cured people "bewitched and planet-struck;" George Butler, who, being a "king's servant, refused to come till twice cited, and then showed a licence from his Grace the Archbishop of Canterbury;" (his charges and mode of obtaining payment seem to have been as peculiar as his practice: to one woman he gave 25 pills, for which he expected 30s. a-piece; to another he gave 4 purges, and had her petticoat in pawn;") and Dr. Leighton, a Scotch puritan preacher, who, for the publication of a book reflecting upon the Queen and the bishops, had been so infamously treated by the Star Chamber of Laud and Charles I. "He said he practised under his doctor's degree taken at Leyden; but giving no satisfaction, and being perverse as to ecclesiastical affairs," was interdicted. He then endeavoured to procure a licence, which was refused on account of his being in holy orders. "But he still persisting to practise in London or within seven miles, he was arrested, and afterwards censured, tanquam infamis, he having been censured in the Star Chamber, and lost his ears." We conclude with two of not the least curious cases of the whole. In the examination of John Lamb occurs the following passage:-" Being asked in astrology what house he looketh. unto to know a disease, or the event of it, and how the Lord Ascendant should stand thereto-he answereth, he looks for the sixth house: which being disproved, he saith he understands nothing therein." It is evident from this as well as from Forman's examination that the censors of the College themselves dabbled occasionally in astrological learning. The last case is thus recorded:-" In the 12th year of the King's (Charles I.) reign, an order was sent to the College from the Star Chamber to examine the pretended cures of one Leverett, who said that he was a seventh son, and undertook the curing of several diseases by stroaking." Accordingly various examinations took place, and very amusing it is to read the account of the experiments performed in them before the grave censors, and other learned fellows of the College, who watched from day to day the results of the "stroaking" process on the patients brought to be submitted to it. On more than one occasion we find the name of Harvey among the examiners. Of course the imposture or delusion was exposed; but it sounds somewhat strangely when we hear it stated in aggravation of his offence by "W. Clowes, Serjeant-Surgeon to his Majesty,"