sent. Thus tipos was written oxígos (Hesych. s. v.), and perhaps even xiços (Pausan. II. 26, 9); and in the same way the Eastern subjects of Alexander seem to have transposed the elements of the § in his name, if we may judge from the forms of Αλέξανδρος and 'Αλεξανδρία, e. g. Iscander, Scanderon, Candahar*. The same has been the case with (Bekk. Anecd. p. 815), and the pronominal forms ve, viv, -pse, must be considered as transpositions of opɛ. It has been mentioned above, that έi appears to have come in as a substitute for the Doric 6áv, the older representative of Shîn. The Latin x seems frequently to have lost the k-sound altogether, as in Ulyxes compared with 'Odvóóɛús, rixa compared with e-qid-s, ¿-pí¿w, &c. In the Doric dialext § appears for 6 in the fut. and 1 aor. of verbs in -o (Ahrens, dial. Dor. pp. 89 sqq.). It can hardly be doubted that it is here, like 66-, a representative of the the sound sh resulting from 6. In the name έons it seems that § represents both ks and also sk softened into sh, for the Persian original was Khshayârsha (see below, §§ 160, 470). 116 We must now show how H, the old mark of the aspiration in Greek, came to be used as a sign for the long e, the first half of it being alone retained to denote the rough breathing. It is an etymological principle of great importance, that an aspirated short vowel is equivalent to an unaspirated long one. To this may be added another principle of equal importance and fundamentally the same, that an initial digamma or aspirated labial, represented by the secondary vowels i or u, may be placed behind the initial vowel so as to form a diphthong, or even be transferred to the second syllable of the word. We have a simple exemplification of the first principle in the word uos a shoulder," which is clearly another form of ouos from the pronominal compound 8-μ- (óμov, &c.), expressing the equilibrium of the shoulders: so that couos ouog is related to humerus, as vóμog is to numerus. Of both principles we have the following instances in the Greek language itself, and from one root-Eλx in λxco, which begins properly with the digamma, and of which we shall speak more at length in a subsequent chapter. From this root we have ἥλεκτρον for ἕλκτρον, ἠλακάτα and ἠλακάτη for ἑλκτά and ἑλκτή, and λαξ for ὅλξ according to the first principle, and avλag for the same word, according to the second†. We recognise the same etymological fact in the comparison of ae-quus with i-za-vós, which has nearly the same meaning. In compounds we see * In the inscription of Açoka at Kapur di Giri (B. c. 253), the name of Alexander seems to be represented by Alikasunari, in which the elements of the appear in their proper order. + See Buttmann, Mythol. 11. pp. 355 foll., which we have translated in our notes on the Antigone of Sophocles, pp. 213-219. that ae, originally ai, is equivalent to ī. Thus from as-timo we have ex-istimo, from a-quus, in-iquus, &c. (see Varronianus, p. 262). Consequently ae-qua-nus-i-ka-nus=-xa-vós. So that we ought not to connect ixavós with ixw, ixávo as Passow does in his Lexicon, but with the pronominal compound hi-c found in the affix --xós, &c.: and thus iza-vós corresponds in origin as well as meaning to idoneus=ideo-neus (cf. Buttmann, Lexil. 1. 46; Döderlein, Etym. u. Syn. III. 276). The second principle is very frequently applied in transitions from Greek to Sanskrit: thus we have in Sanscrit dêvas=deFós (dhěvos); êkataras (aikataras)=έxátɛoos; the Sanscrit êka-aika is yak in modern Persian, and the Sanscrit vêdmi (=vaidmi), phêna (=phaina), çvêta (=çvaita) correspond to the Sclavonic vjemi, pjena, svjet. But it is not at all uncommon in Greek: thus from the last-mentioned root (exas, Sanscrit êkas, Latin æquus and secus), we have exŋλos for ëxηlos, a change which it is certainly not necessary to account for by the supposition of two digammas, as Thiersch and Buttmann have supposed. The gloss in Hesychius (γέγκαλον, ἥσυχον), which would seem to point to a form FéFxaλos, is evidently wrong from its position between yɛógas and γεκαθά (1. γεκοῦσα) in that vocabulary: we should read γέκαλον with Pearson and Guyet. Sometimes the digamma, which should have begun the word, was transferred not only to a place behind the first vowel, but even to the beginning of the second syllable, as in the following instance: ὅλος=Fόλος, “full,” became first οὐλός=ὄλος, then oλFos, as we see in őλßos and ỏλßaxov (as it should be read in Hesychius, s. v. εὔπλουτον) from οὐλή and χέω. The same principle explains the shifting of the aspirate in such cases as exo (ek-ho), Ea (hek-so), Toέyo (trek-ho), doέğw (threk-so), &c. We conceive then that the adoption of H as the sign for the long vowel nē, is due to the fact that he was actually considered as equivalent to ē. The vowel really contains, in many cases, not merely the common rough breathing, but also the digamma hv, and even the softened dental or guttural dy, j, as in iτúñηv for iτúnyav, or, when aspirated at the beginning of the word, as in ήμερος for διαμερος, &c. This j y is also represented by & in the middle of a word, as in лóλɛшs= лólyos; and we often find that ē presumes a single & preceded by some guttural breathing (Buttmann, Ausführl. Sprl. § 112, 17, Anm. 23). Compare έoon with the Sancrit varsha. We shall not be surprised, therefore, to find that ʼn is also in many cases the representative of ξ ξ : thus δέελος is another form of δῆλος and ᾔδε, οἱ ᾔδη; ἀναλύεται γοῦν τὸ ἢ εἰς δύο εε, ὡς παρὰ τῷ ποιητῇ δέελον δ ̓ ἐπὶ σῆμά τ' ἔχευαν—καὶ συναιρεῖται πάλιν τὰ δύο ξε εἰς τὸ ἢ, ὡς τὸ deε, dr(Schol. Dionys. Thr. p. 797). The form of ∞ shows that it is a similar combination of oo, and there is every reason to believe or that this was its real value. As the Sanscrit â=a+a regularly corresponds to a as well as to ā, and as the Sanscrit à represents the lighter o no less than the heavier ă, we may fairly conclude that w is the reduplication of o just as ā is of ă, or that in the longer as well as in the shorter vowels the Greek alphabet denotes those differences of weight, which the Sanscrit neglects. In this scale of weights & is the lightest vowel. But n is heavier than ∞, which is substituted for it in derivative forms or heavier words; thus from лατηo we have ἀπάτωρ, from φρήν, σώφρων; and we have the heavier words Ιταλιώτης, στρατιώτης by the side of πολιήτης. The statement, therefore, that n, requires the explanation given above, namely that ɛɛ in this case must be regarded as a fainter articulation of the a to which nis etymologically equivalent. The pronunciation of n takes it out of ๆ the category of the mere articulation vowels a, ɛ, o. It corresponded to the Hebrew tsere, i. e. to our long a as in mate, or to our long e as in there. The passage from a to this sound may be seen in a comparison of the German ja with our yea. The act of utterance in o, w, no less than in a, a, ɛ, is consistent with a fully-opened mouth, and this is indicated by the Hebrew names pathach, qametz, and cholem, and by the relation between o and the nasal ; while the narrower opening and the formation of the lips into a mere fissure, by which the tsere and the cognate or included chirik are articulated, are sufficiently expressed by these names. This difference is recognised by the Greek grammarians, who give the following description of the sound οἱ η: δεῖ τὸ μὲν ἡ ἐκφωνοῦντα μηκύνειν τὸ στόμα ὡς ἐπὶ τὰ ὦτα ἑκατέρωθεν, τὸ ῶ ἐκφωνοῦντα μηκύνειν τὰ χείλη ὡς ἐπὶ τὴν ῥῖνα zai Tòv nóуova (Bekkeri Anecd. p. 797), and is confirmed by the fact that Cratinus and Aristophanes represented the bleating of the sheep by the syllable ẞñ (see Meineke, Fragm. Com. Ant. p. 40; Hesych. s. v. ẞn Léya; Etym. M. 196, 7; and Bekker. Anecd. p. 86). 117 Although we must reserve for subsequent chapters some further discussion of certain letters, we shall perhaps consult the convenience of the student by stating briefly in this place the results at which we have arrived respecting the Greek Alphabet in general. We enumerate in the established order all the characters at any time employed by the ancient Greeks. The original syllabarium is distinguished by the employment of capitals and Roman numerals, and we have added the Hebrew letter when the character is of Semitic origin, (1) I. A, 8, at first a mere breathing, afterwards a broad, open sound, frequently used as a representative of the nasal breathing, just as passes through .א into (2) II. B,, generally like our b, but sometimes, at it seems, employed as a v. (3) III. г, 3, a hard g, sometimes accompanied by a nasal breathing. (4) IV. 4, 7, often pronounced with a lisp, and then approximating to and ọ. (5) V. E,, at first an aspirate, afterwards the residuary light vowel with which that aspirate was articulated; (6) (7) often pronounced like y when followed by another vowel. VI. F,, a combination of the guttural breathing with the labial, most usually under the form he or hu; in its original value the labial predominated. ,, originally ds, transposed in some dialects to sd, and softened generally into the sound j or sh, which is equivalent to di or gi. (8) VII. H,, a hard aspirated guttural, pronounced hg or gh, afterwards a long vowel like the Hebrew tsere and our a in ale, but always implying some etymological absorption, especially the syllable a. (9) VIII. @,, originally hd or dh, afterwards softened through th into an approximate sibilant, and always closely allied to d. (10) (11) ,, a vocalized guttural. *,, (12) IX. 4, b, (13) X. M, 72, (14) XI. N, (15) a substitution for Q: occurs twice as a final letter. μ μ ,, originally 6x from 6x or sh; afterwards transposed to ks; in some dialects it retained its softer sound. (16) XII. O, y, (17) XIII. II, D, (18) XIV. Q, p. (19) at first a mere nasal breathing; afterwards an intermediate value of the articulation vowel; sometimes pronounced as w before another vowel. did not differ from its modern equivalent. properly a combination of guttural and labial, like F; the guttural however predominated in this case. approximated to 8 and 9; and is occasionally found as a final letter. (20) XV. Σ, C, D, the most usual sibilant; very often occurs as a final. did not differ from the ordinary dental tenuis. an imperfect substitute for another value of the lost F. a substitute for H after its disuse as a conso- an arbitrary combination of л and 6. an arbitrary combination of 6 and л, afterwards 118 (3) Interchange of mutes in the Greek and cognate languages. We now come to the third subject of inquiry which we have proposed to ourselves in this Chapter-the changes which take place in the mutes or fundamental consonants of related words in the different languages of the Indo-Germanic family. The liquids usually remain unaltered in the corresponding words, and the breathings we have already considered. It has been perceived that the changes of the mutes generally follow a very striking law, which was first pointed out, in a partial and imperfect manner, by Rasmus Rask, and afterwards established, in its application to the Greek (Latin, Sanscrit), the Gothic, and Old High German, by James Grimm (Deutsche Gramm. 1. p. 584 foll.). This law has been extended by Bopp (Vergl. Gramm. pp. 78 foll.) to the Zend and Lithuanian. Some of the exceptions to which the rule is liable have been indicated by Dr. Guest (Prov. Phil. P |