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lectures; which he thinks in the highest degree blameable. The cafe is the fame in all univerfities. If the ftudents do not voluntarily attend the lectures, and apply themfelves to private ftudies, they will forfeit the efteem of the profeffors, and, what is of more confequence, be refufed their degrees. It is left wholly, and very reafonably, to the ftudent, to become an adept in the fcience, or to be illiterate. Where the profeffors fee a young man eager in the purfuit of knowledge, they will afford him every affiftance in their power; where they fee him indolent, they juftly think every conftrained application to ftudy will but increase his diflike to it, and be not only unattended with fuccefs, but hurtful to fcience; which can never flourish to its full extent, except in the utmoft freedom.

While we thus defend the practice of the universities, we muft, nevertheless, beftow our praife on M. Dulaurens's judicious plan of medical education, as propofed in the work before

His fcheme, if duly followed, promifes to be productive of the moft falutary effects; and though more peculiarly calculated for the meridian of France, may, with the requifite alterations, be adapted to other countries where medical education is improperly conducted.

ART. VI.

R

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Effai fur l'Education Intellectuelle, &c. An Effay on Intellectual Education, with the Plan of a new Science. By Alexander Cæfar Chavannes, Profeffor in the Academy of Laufanne. 8vo. pp. 261. Laufanne. 1787.

HIS work contains many obfervations which difcover a confiderable reach of thought, and extent of knowledge. It forms but a small portion of a much larger work, which M. Chavannes poffeffes in manufcript, and which he thinks might be comprized in 15 volumes, 8vo, containing each from 3 to 400 pages. In the prefent fketch of his vaft undertaking, the Author proves, that our knowledge, our languages, and all human inftitutions, are originally derived from nature; and he explains the method ufually purfued in drawing from this common fource. The third chapter treats of the diftribution of human knowledge into different fciences, and of the fynthetic method of teaching them.

M. Chavannes, in his fourth chapter, proves the infufficiency of the Synthefis for the inftruction of youth; and the following chapters are employed in pointing out the means of fupplying this defect. Thefe are, 1. The ftudy of antiquity, and of the primitive fources of human knowledge and human inftitutions. 2. The study of different languages, and of the theory of language in general. 3. The introduction and

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ftudy of a new fcience, called Anthropology, or the general fcience of man. This fcience the Author divides into different branches. 1. Anthropology, properly fo called, confiders man as a fpecies gloriously diftinguifhed above all others. 2. Ethnology refpects man as divided into different communities or nations, occupied in providing for their wants, and in gratifying their taftes. 3. Noology and Boulology, which regard man as an intelligent and moral agent. 4. Gloffology confiders him as endowed with fpeech, and explains whatsoever regards language. 5. Mythology explains the errors and extravagances of his religious opinions.

Such are the contents of the first part of this performance. In the fecond, M. Chavannes having explained the abfurdity of the prefent mode of education, proceeds to the establishing of principles for a new method, more eafy, expeditious, and useful.

The mind,' he obferves, is, like the body, so conftituted, as to increase in force by degrees; and the fame means ought therefore to be employed for our intellectual, that are used for our phyfical improvement. To the latter, three circumftances are deemed neceffary. 1. Nourishment, falutary, and proportional to our conftitution and prefent degree of ftrength. 2. Moderate exercise, which, inftead of exhaufting, increases both our strength and activity. 3. The habit of performing, with ease and promptitude, different movements neceffary to the purposes of life, without diftortion, and without danger. From the application of thefe principles the Author infers, that in the education of children, we ought to teach them facts rather than inferences, and employ them about fenfible and particular ideas, before we prefent them with thofe that are general and abftract. A fecond rule, not lefs important, is, that we ought never to teach them what they are not qualified to learn; nor make them pronounce words of which they are not in a fituation to comprehend the meaning; nor advance their knowledge in language but in proportion to the progrefs of their knowledge in things. Hence it follows, that their first education ought to be entirely confined to their mother-tongue."

In illuftrating thefe rules, M. Chavannes obferves, that as foon as children begin to diftinguish objects, and to articulate founds, they ought to be fhewn the objects moft capable of interefting them, and to be left at full liberty with regard to the found by which they exprefs thefe objects, as well as their fenfations and defires: as yet Nature is their beft guide, and muft direct their fancy in the choice of figns; but when they have advanced to fome degree of familiarity with language, and become capable of understanding and imitating the difcourfe of others, it is time to fubftitute, inftead of their infantine dialect, the words of their mother-tongue, and to beftow much pains in

teaching

!

Arteaga's Revolutions of the Italian Opera.

545

teaching them to pronounce it properly. They will scarcely be able to express themselves intelligibly, and to extend their vocabulary to all that belongs to common life, before the age of fix or feven, which is the proper time for beginning to read. When we reflect on the various combinations neceffary for the formation of fpeech, and confider the difficulties attending our progrefs in this art, it feems extraordinary that children fhould acquire it in fo fhort a time. But our furprize ceases when we reflect, that in this firft and moft neceflary art, nature is their principal guide; and that whatever is done naturally is done eafily, how complicated foever it may be, especially when the neceffity of doing it is urgent and palpable. It is quite otherwife with the art of reading, of which children perceive not the neceffity, though they feel moft fenfibly its irksomeness and its difficulties. Yet thefe difficulties proceed from two causes, which might eafily be removed: the firft, that children are taught to read, before they can speak with any propriety, and have familiarized themselves with the words neceffary in common life; the fecond, that in teaching them this art, we employ a multitude of operations, not more tedious than useless, and exercise them on a number of words which they do not comprehend, and which, perhaps, they may never have occafion to ufe. But let this method be reverfed; let them be first taught to speak diftinctly, and let fuch books only be put into their hands as they can readily understand, and it will be found that they will learn reading without averfion, without trouble, and with little wafte of time.'

We cannot follow M. Chavannes through the long detail into which he enters concerning the different branches of education. He appears to be well acquainted with the authors on this fubject, both ancient and modern. In many particulars his opinions nearly coincide with thofe of his countryman Rouffeau, whofe fyftem, often fingular, fometimes extravagant, yet for the most part founded on fome principles of truth, Chavannes feems to have reduced to what is reasonable and practicable.

ART. VII.

M:

G.ll..s.

Le Revoluzioni del Teatro Muficale Italiano. Revolutions of the Italian
Opera, or musical Drama, from its Invention to the prefent Times.
By STEFANO ARTEAGA. 2d Edit. 3 Vols. 8vo. Rome. 1785.

HE firft edition of this work was published at Bologna,

T1783, in one volume; but it is now fo changed and aug

* The Swiss do not acknowledge the Genevefe for their countrymen; but they appear in that light to ftrangers, who have not leifure to attend to minute provincial distinctions.

APP. Rev. Vol. LXXVII.

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mented, as to have the appearance of a new production. Befide addititions to former chapters, the Author has now fwelled his work with feven entire new and long chapters, concerning the moft effential parts of his fubject.

As this is an elaborate performance, written with spirit and enthusiasm, and has been much read in Italy, we shall, at some future time, present our mufical Readers with the result of a deliberate examination of the Author's principles, and the abilities he has manifefted in fupport of them. At prefent, we can only exhibit a table of the contents of each chapter of the feveral volumes; by which it will appear, that the fubjects difcuffed are curious, and well felected.

VOL. I.

Preliminary Difcourfe. Chap. I. Analytic effay on the nature of mufical dramas. Specific difference between them and other kinds of dramatic compofitions. Conftituent laws derived from the union of poetry, mufic, and perfpective. Chap. II. Enquiry into the aptitude or fitnefs of the Italian language for mufic, deduced from its formation and mechanifm. Political caufes of its fuperiority over other languages, for mufical purpofes. Chap. III. Lofs of ancient mufic. Origin of church mufic in Italy. Pretended difcoveries of Guido and John de Muris. Theatrical reprefentations of barbarous ages. Parallel between them, and thofe of the Greeks. Progrefs of Counterpoint. Chap. IV. Origin of fecular mufic. Foreigners employed Italy to cultivate it. Its first union with the Italian language, or vulgar tongue. Mufical intermezzi, or interludes. Sketch of the melodramma. Chap. V. Defects of Italian mufic about the end of the 15th century, and means proposed for its melioration. State of Italian poetry. Mufical drama invented at Florence. Firft ferious opera. Airs, chorus, decorations. First comic opera, its character. Chap. VI. Reflections on the marvellous. Its origin, hiftory, and propagation in Europe. Caufe of its union with mufic and lyric poetry. Chap. VII. Rapid progrefs of the mufical drama in Italy, and other parts of Europe. Operas in France, England, Germany, Spain, and Ruffia. Chap. VIII. State of perfpective, of scenery, and lyric poetry, to the end of the laft century.

VOL. II.

Chap. IX. Golden age of mufic in Italy. Progrefs of melody. Eminent Italian compofers. Celebrated fchools of finging and playing upon inftruments. Their character. Chap. X. Improvement of dramatic lyric poetry. Quinaut in France the precursor of its improvement. Celebrated poets anterior to Metaftafio. Improvement in fcenery and decoration. Chap. XI. Era of Metaftafio. His improvements in poetry and the Italian language. Reflections on his manner of treating the paffion of

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love. His defects. Whether he has brought the mufical drama
to the utmost perfection poffible. Chap. XII. Present decline
of the Italian opera. Its general cause. Parallel between the
mufic of the ancients and moderns. Reafons for the perfection
of the ancient, and intrinfic inconvenience of our mufical fyf-
tem. Chap. XIII. Particular caufes of the prefent degeneracy
of the opera. Firft caufe. Want of philofophy in compofers.
Defects in their compofitions. Reflections on the modern ufe of
inftrumental mufic. Examination of recitative, and air.

VOL. III.

Chap. XIV. Second cause of degeneracy. Vanity and ignorance of fingers. Analysis of modern melody. Reflections on popular judgment, and the variety of mufical tafte. Chap. XV. Third caufe. The almoft total ruin of lyric poetry. Character of the moft celebrated dramatic lyric poets fince Metaftafio. State of the comic opera. Chap. XVI. Difcuffion of pantomime dancing, in application to the theatre. Whether it should be retained or banifhed from the opera. Chap. XVII. and last. Attempts at reforming the mufical drama. Tranflation of a letter to the Comte de Caylus by the Abbé Arnaud, in 1754, on the fubject of dramatic mufic. Reply to a criticism on this work, inferted in the Encyclopedie-Journal of Bologna.

Such are the contents of thefe volumes, in which, though there are many admirable reflections, yet, as they are written with the fpirit and prejudices of a man of letters, who underftands and feels the beauties of poetry more than thofe of mufic; and as the Author's hiftorical information is fometimes defective and erroneous, the work feems to furnish frequent and intereft

ing opportunities for difcuffion, and mufical criticism. MB..y.

ART. VIII.

Collection des meilleurs Ouvrages François, compofes par des Femmes;
i. e. The Works of celebrated Frenchwomen: Selected by Ma-
demoiselle de Keralio. 8vo. 3 vols. Faris, 1786.

HIS Work may be confidered as a repofitory for the
female literature of France. It is to be comprifed in 36
volumes, of which three only are publifhed. These contain the
lives of Heloife, of Chriftina of Pifano, and of Marguerite de
Valois, Queen of Navarre; together with their letters, hiftories,

*This Lady was born in the fourteenth century. Toward the clofe of it fhe became a writer, and compofed feveral vifions and allegories. They who are acquainted with the writings of Bunyan, may form a tolerable idea of her manner. Sometimes, however, the is much fuperior to him. Heloife and Marguerite de Valois are fufficiently known.

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