walnut, and most of the ordinary nuts, and the common garden vegetables, peas, cabbage, turnips, potatoes, &c. flourish best. It is also the native climate of oats, hemp, and flax, and the most favourable for their cultivation.

143. At the northern limits of this region, the oak commences, and the forests are composed of the oak, the elm, the maple and the beach, instead of the birch, willow, fir and pine.

144. The isothermal line of 59°. passes through Raleigh, in the United States, in latitude 35°.; but in Europe it ascends to 44°. and passes between Rome and Florence; extending north of Greece and the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea. It descends probably to latitude 35°. after passing the great table-land of Asia. On the western coast of North America, it ascends to 37°. or 38. and perhaps still higher. Between the line of 59°. and that of 50°. berore described, is the temperate region, whose climate in North America inay be rather termed a mixture of the cold and hot. This region includes the southern part of New England and the Middle states, with the more elevated regions of Maryland and Virginia, and the Western states on the Ohio. Tennessee, and the western parts of the Carolinas, from their elevation, partake of the same climate.

145. The mean annual temperature is the same as in this region in Europe; but it is differently distributed. In the Atlantic states, the climate is marked by extremes of heat and cold, resembling the south of Europe in summer, and the middle regions in winter. But the weather is variable, and neither lasts long at a time. Philadelphia has summers as hot as Montpelier and Rome, while its winters are like those of Vienna. New York has the summer of Rome, and the winter of Copenhagen. Quebec is as warm as Paris in summer; and as cold as Petersburgh in winter. The eastern coast of Asia appears to be characterised by equal or greater extremes of temperature; for Pekin is hotter than Cairo in summer, and as cold as Upsal in Sweden in winter.

146. The Atlantic states are sheltered by no ranges of mountains on the north, east, or south, and hence the climate is variable. The cold of the northern regions, the heat of the southern, the moisture of the sea-air, and the dryness of the mountainous regions, are alternately transported to them by the winds. The changes are frequent and sudden; and give rise to many diseases from which more settled climates are exempt. The winters are short, and often wet. The spring is damp and chilly; the summer has excessive heat during the day, and usually cool nights. The autumn is a serene, delightful season, often extending to the latter part of December.

147. From the influence of the great lakes, the temperate region extends farther north in the interior than on the coast; and beyond Lake Eric, reaches to the latitude of the southern point of Lake Huron. The states west of the Allegames, and especially in the mountainous districts south of Pennsylvania and the River Ohio, are not liable to the same extremes of heat and cold. The winters are commonly milder, and cattle

remain abroad throughout the year. The spring is earlier, and the weather is generally more serene and settled. But the basin of the Mississippi is open to the winds from the torrid and frozen regions, and is therefore liable to very great changes. The temperature has sometimes varied on the Mississippi sixty degrees in the course of a month; while in Philadelphia, Washington, and Detroit, the variation in the same month was only from thirty to forty degrees.

148. In the elevated regions of the southern United States, lying among the Allegany Mountains, the temperate region of the middle states extends as far south as thirty-one degrees. From this circumstance, Tennessee enjoys a temperate, delightful climate; and the neighbouring parts of Georgia and the Carolinas, which lie on the sides of the mountains, are also free from the excessive heats and violent diseases of the low country. The next important line which is distinctly marked, is that of 68°. which corresponds nearly to the northern limit of the sugar-cane and coffee, and is generally the most southern limit of snow. In North America it is almost coincident with the parallel of 30°. or 31°. on the eastern coast; while on the other side of the Atlantic we find the same plants, and a corresponding temperature in latitude 37°. in the south of Spain, Sicily, Asia Minor, and Syria; but on reaching Persia it descends to 30°.: it is still lower in passing round the table-land of Tartary; and probably does not extend beyond 30°. in China.

149. The warm regions extend from the boundaries of the temperate region to the northern limit of the sugar-cane, lying between the isothermal lines of 59o. and 68°.; and of course have a temperature intermediate between these. The frosts are not severe in the plains; snow is rare, and the waters are seldom frozen over. The winters are distinguished more for dampness than cold, resembling the spring of the temperate regions. The more delicate fruits, as the olive, the fig, &c. flourish; and vegetables grow during seven or eight months of the year. The level portions of the southern United States, which lie in the warm regions, have a different climate from the corresponding countries in Europe, on account of the moisture which prevails. Vegetation is abundant, marshes are numerous, and the heat is therefore less scorching; but they are not usually favoured with a salubrious air. Noxious effluvia are continually formed; and there is a general tendency to bilious diseases and fevers, especially of the intermittent kind. The autumn is almost uniformly sickly; and the countenances of the inhabitants have a pale and sallow cast, instead of the bloom and freshness of more northern climates, or the brunette of the southern Europeans.

150. On passing the isothermal line of sixtyeight degrees, corresponding in America to the thirtieth or thirty-first parallel of latitude, we meet with the sugar-cane and coffee for the first time; and find ourselves in a tropical climate, whose characteristics vary very little, except in the gradual increase of temperature from the frigid to the opposite extreme of the torrid zone. In the level tracts of this region frost and snow

are unknown; the trees are covered with perpetual verdure, and the various periods of flower and fruit in different plants are the chief indications of season. The mean temperature varies from seventy to eighty degrees; the heat of summer is oppressive to the natives, and dangerous to strangers; exposure to the sun in the middle of the day is hazardous for both. Those districts which are nearly at the level of the sea, are still more subject to the noxious effluvia which we have described in the warm regions; and are annually visited by that dreadful scourge of hot climates, the malignant bilious or yellow fever. Few strangers who visit these countries in the hottest season escape the disease, although many survive its attacks. On the coast of Mexico it is not uncommon for a traveller to experience a fatal attack, merely in passing from the high country to embark for Europe.

151. The insular situation of the West Indies of course modifies their climate, as will be fully described under that head. The continent itself in this portion is so generally elevated above the level of the sea, that it has every variety of climate from that we have been describing to that of the temperate regions. Immediately above the Tierras Calientes, or hot regions of the coasts, we find on the declivity of the table-land the Tierras Teinpladas or temperate regions, commencing at the height of 4000 or 5000 feet. A soft spring temperature perpetually reigns here, which never varies more than eight or ten degrees; the mean annual temperature is sixtyeight or seventy, corresponding to that of the regions last described; the extremes of heat and cold are equally unknown, and the malignant fever never reaches the borders of these favoured tracts: they are only incommoded by frequent thick fogs, in consequence of this being the usual elevation of the clouds. At the height of 7000 feet the Tierras Frias or cool regions commence, which extend over the table-land; the mean temperature is less than sixty-two degrees, or corresponds to that of Rome; it is rare that the thermometer falls below the freezing point; the winters are as mild as at Naples, having a mean heat of from fifty-five to seventy degrees; in summer the thermometer in the shade never rises above seventy-five. Some districts of limited extent rise still higher than this, and experience a severity of cold which is disagreeable and unfavourable to vegetation.

152. With regard to the country near the sources of the Rio del Norte, it is observed by Pike, that no person accustomed to reside in the temperate climate of thirty-six and thirty-seven degrees of north latitude, in the United States, can form any idea of the piercing cold in that parallel in New Mexico; but the air is serene, and unaccompanied by damps and fogs, as it rains but once in the year, and some years not at all. It is a mountainous country. The grand dividing ridges, which separate the waters of the Rio del Norte from those of California, border it on the line of its western limits, and are covered in some places with eternal snows, which give a keenness to the air that could not be calculated upon nor expected in a temperate zone.'

The prevalent winds of North America are

from the north-east and north-west, sweeping between the chain of mountains, and in the same directions. The south-west appears to be next in frequency, produced in part by the re-action of the atmosphere after the preceding. The north-easterly winds are usually loaded with cold vapours, and are peculiarly piercing. The westerly and north-westerly winds are generally dry, and produce a clear and invigorating state of the air. The south-westerly winds are of course warm; and, as they bring the vapours of the gulf of Mexico, they render the atmosphere moist, producing rain in winter, and a sultry heat in summer. The frequent alternations of these winds produce the sudden and unwholesome changes so much complained of in the American climates.

153. The quantity of rain is greater than in those countries of Europe which have the same mean temperature; but, in consequence of its falling more rapidly, the number of clear days is generally greater than in any country of Europe north of the Alps and west of Russia. These facts will be seen on the examination of comparative tables.

The following table shows the quantity of rain which falls annually, in a number of places on both continents, arranged according to the amount.

are smaller carnivorous animals, with habits similar to those of the cougouar and catamount. 160. The skins and fur of these animals are valuable, especially that of the bear. There are several species of the fox, designated by names derived from their colour-red, grey, &c.: the fur is very useful; and that of the black fox is among the most valuable furs. The ermine is also found in the northern United States. The badger or carcajou, weasel, marten, and several species of otter, are common in North America, and add to the supply of furs. The racoon is an active sagacious animal, resembling the fox in size and shape, and producing a coarse fur. The skunk or pole-cat is a small animal which defends itself from its pursuers by emitting a fluid of the most disgusting odour, which renders any thing on which it falls so offensive that it cannot be used until a length of time has elapsed.

161. The American forests abound with the various species of squirrels. Seven species were observed by Lewis and Clark, west of the Mississippi river. The flying squirrel is a small but beautiful animal, remarkable for a membrane two or three inches broad, extending from the fore to the hind legs, on each side of the body, which it uses to aid its progress and sustain its weight in leaping from tree to tree. Rabbits are also numerous; but the European hare has not been discovered. The American marmot, known under the names of the wood-chuck or groundhog, is about the size of a rabbit, but more resembling a rat in its form: it burrows like the rabbit; and is hunted for its flesh and fur.

162. The Missouri marmot or Prairie dog is found in great numbers in the Missouri country, and is remarkable for its singular habits. These animals live in families, and burrow to a considerable depth. The sites of their towns are generally on the brow of a hill near some stream or pond, but sufficiently elevated to escape inundation. They sometimes extend over two or three square miles. Their holes descend in a spiral form, and to such a depth, that it is impossible to drive them out. In approaching one of their settlements, you are saluted on all sides by the cry of wish-ton-wish, uttered in a shrill piercing manner, like the bark of a small dog, from which the Indian name of the animal is copied. At this signal they all retreat to the entrance of their burrows, and post themselves in watchful attention to your motions. It is remarkable that their towns are infested with rattle-snakes to such a degree, as to render it dangerous to pass through them. The jerboa of Canada is a little animal of the mouse kind, which frequents the meadows and corn-fields as well as the forest, remarkable for its rapid jumping motion. The Canada rat is distinguished by a pouch on each side of its mouth for the reception and preservation of food. The opossum is an animal about as large as a cat, remarkable for the mode of producing and rearing its young. At their birth they are extremely small, and remain concealed in a pouch under the belly, attached to the teats, as if they were inanimate. When somewhat grown, they appear occasionally at the opening of the

pouch; and after they are able to run about they retreat to it in time of danger, and are protected or carried off by the mother. The opossum is remarkable for its tenacity of life: its flesh is very palatable. There are four species of the deer, differing in several particulars from the European. They are found in great numbers in those parts of the country which are still covered with wood. The elk and the moose are large animals, resembling the deer in many points; but distinguished by their superior strength and greater weight.

163. The most valuable domestic animals, the horse, the ox, the ass, the sheep, the dog, are not natives of the new continent; but they have been introduced from Europe, and are now found in all parts of the continent. Immense herds of wild horses traverse the plains west of the Mississippi; and the wild cattle of South America are hunted merely for the hides. A peculiar species of sheep, differing from the domestic animal, is found among the Chippewan mountains. The goat is seen in large herds on the plains of the Missouri.

164. The plains west of the Mississippi also abound with herds of the bison, or American wild ox, whose flesh and skin form the principal support of the Indian tribes. The bison were formerly abundant even on the sea-coast of North America; but have constantly retired as the population advanced, and are now only found beyond the Ohio and Mississippi. Thousands are sometimes seen feeding together. The muskox is found in the higher latitudes of this continent. Of the amphibious animals, the seal is found upon the north-west coast, and the seaelephant in the seas on the north and east. On the coast of Mexico is the manati, or sea-cow, whose flesh resembles that of the ox. The beaver is found through the whole breadth of the continent; and exhibits the most surprising ingenuity and sagacity in the construction of its cabin and provision for its support and safety.

165. The following table will show the fallacy of the opinion, that the animals of the new continent are inferior to those of the old. The first column exhibits the weight of several species of quadrupeds in Europe, as given by Buffon; and the second shows the weight of the same animal in Vermont, as given by Dr. Williams, whose authority is unquestionable.

166. The birds of North America present every variety of beautiful plumage and exquisite colours, and every form and size, from the soaring powerful eagle and the screaming vulture to the gaudy paroquet, and the exquisite miniature of the kind-the humming bird. Some have a fine note; and the mocking-bird is remarkable for its imitation of every species of song. The game and wild fowl are abundant, including pheasants, snipes, wild geese and wild ducks of several kinds, and the wild turkey, which is esteemed the greatest luxury of the kind. The reptiles are less numerous. The rattle-snake is distinguished for its habit of giving previous notice of its attacks; and this circumstance, with the slowness of its movements, renders it far less dangerous than is generally imagined. The scorpion is found in the hot countries near the tropics. America is celebrated for the number of its venomous insects, which are indeed a serious evil in the marshy, and especially the hot districts. The sea-coast is amply supplied with fish; and the banks of Newfoundland are the storehouse of cod fish for all Europe. The lakes and rivers abound with many peculiar species of great delicacy.

167. MINERALS.-North America embraces every species of geological formation, and therefore we may expect it to contain almost every variety of useful and beautiful minerals. It is well known that Mexico furnishes two-thirds of the whole amount of silver annually extracted from the globe. Gold is also found in Mexico and the United States in considerable abundance; copper and lead are abundant; and North America is proverbially a land of wood and iron, the first necessary to convert the last to useful purposes. Tin and mercury are found in Mexico, and zinc in many parts of the continent. The demand has not yet led to sufficient care in searching for the other less important metals.

168. The secondary region, which occupies the central portion of the continent, and the more limited districts of the same character on the coast, abound with coal, salt, and lime-those articles of prime necessity which could not without difficulty be imported from abroad into the interior. Nitre is also produced in sufficient quantities to supply the continent with the means of defence in the natural caves of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. Gypsum, which has become an important aid to agriculture, is also abundant. Building stone of every description is found in great abundance in most parts of the continent; and there are stores of beautiful marbles for ornamental purposes. There are also materials of the first quality for the manufacture of every species of earthen-ware and glass. The particular description of the mines of various kinds is reserved for the individual countries, as they form so important a part of their resources. 169. The alluvial regions of North America also present us with a great variety of interesting objects in the form of organic remains. Whole forests are found buried in beds of rock and strata of sand on the Atlantic. The remnants of marine and land animals are also found in great bundance; and the bones of the mastodon, found in various parts of the United States, have

furnished the learned with an interesting object of admiration and research. This portion of the continent is also well supplied with mineral springs. Those of pure salt are very numerous in the secondary region. Those of sulphur also abound. Others of various qualities, saline, sulphureous, chalybeate, and carbonated, were known to the natives to have been discovered by travellers in different directions. We have the best account of those in the United States, which contain numerous and valuable mineral springs of various qualities. The whole secondary region belonging to the basin of the Mississippi, abounds in sulphureous and saline springs, which have not been fully examined or described; and in almost every state, some are found which are valued for their medicinal properties.

170. In the Atlantic States, the most noted sulphureous springs are those of Bedford and York in Pennsylvania; Ontario county and Ballston in New York; Stafford in Connecticut; Pacolet springs in South Carolina; and those of the Allegany Ridge in Virginia. On the Arkansaw River there are warm springs, said to have a temperature of 180 to 190 degrees. They have long been resorted to by the Indians for the cure of diseases. Buncombe county, in North Carolina, also contains warm springs, which are much visited. In Virginia are the Warm and Hot Springs of the county of Bath. The Warm Spring issues with a very bold stream, sufficient to turn a mill, and keeps the water in its basin thirty feet in diameter, at the vital warmth of ninety-six degrees. The Hot Spring, about six miles distant, has a temperature of 106 to 108 degrees of Fahrenheit. In the adjoining county of Monroe are the sweet springs, which rise at the foot of a large mountain; they are usually considered as more medicinal than any others in Virginia, especially for drinking; and are very copious, so that a saw-mill can be turned by them at the distance of 200 yards from their source. The taste is slightly acid; and hence they were absurdly called sweet. The temperature is 72 degrees of Fahrenheit. At New Lebanon, twenty-nine miles south-east of Albany, is a warm spring which has a moderate degree of heat. The mineral impregnation is very slight, but it has frequently proved a valuable remedy for diseases. Chalybeate springs are so numerous in all parts of the United States, that a particular description is impracticable. The most celebrated in the northern states are those of Ballston and Saratoga in New York; Schooley's Mountain in New Jersey; Stafford in Connecticut; and the red springs, near the swee springs of Virginia. A spring recently discovered at Orange, near Newark in New Jersey, has begun to be a place of resort from the city of New York. All these springs, except those of Ballston and Saratoga, are simple chalybeates, with very little carbonic acid gas. Ballston and Saratoga are remarkable for the number and variety of their mineral springs, which are probably not surpassed in efficacy by any in the world. Their waters are bottled, and exported to distant states, and even to Europe, in considerable quantities.

171. Ballston is chiefly distinguished for its chalybeate springs, highly impregnated, and