"I have contracted or conceived a hatred," and the perf. denoting the continuance of the result, “I have it yet, or I hate;” coepi, "I have laid hold of something, of an action," " I begin ;" memini, “I have brought to mind," and now remember; so consuevi, "I have accustomed myself," hence I am accustomed; novi, "I have learned," and I have the knowledge still, hence I know.

The pupil should early observe that complete forms are sometimes made up from different words or roots. Thus in bonus, melior, optimus, neither the comparative nor superlative comes from bonus, but they are supplied from obsolete words of the same signification. So in sum, fui, the latter does not come from sum, but is associated with it as having the same meaning, the perf. of sum not being used. So fero, tuli, and many others.

Again, the vowel and other changes which take place in the derivation and composition of words should be noticed; thus pondus from pendo, toga and tugurium from tego, cultus from colo, facultas from facilis (the penult i changed into u), simultas from similis (i changed to u as before). So in innumerable cases, the vowel of the derived word is different from that of the base or stem.

In compounds, too, there is generally a change of vowels. Thus a in the second member of a compound becomes i before a single consonant, and e before two consonants, the compound taking a lighter vowel than the simple. Hence amicus, inimicus; arma, but inermis; facio, but perficio, perfectum; rapio, but abripio, abreptum; ago, but subigo (though subactum); fallo, but refello; fateor, but confiteor; arceo, but exerceo. So the diphthong ae in compounds goes into i, as caedo, but excido; aequus, but iniquus. And on the principle that compounds take a lighter vowel, the same holds in a simple word where a syllable is prefixed by reduplication, the prefixed syllable

making the word a virtual compound. Thus cano, cecini (not cecani); tango, tetigi (not tetagi); fallo, fefelli (not fefalli, nor fefilli, the a becoming e before the two consonants; but in pario, a becomes e before a single consonant, as peperi).

But the attentive student will find exceptions to this principle, for when the a of the second member of the compound is long by nature, it is generally retained, as făma, infamis; lābor, praelabor; but even when a is short it is sometimes retained, as ămo, deamo; sometimes, too, the a becomes i before two consonants, as frango, perfringo; tango, obtingo. The pupil should observe the general rule here, and the departures from it.

In the second member of a compound, e is sometimes changed into i according to the general law that the compound takes the lighter vowel (i being lighter than e, and e lighter than a). Thus teneo, but abstineo, contineo; rego, but corrigo; premo, but imprimo; lego, but colligo. On the same principle, some reduplicated perfects change e into i in compounds, as dedi, but condidi; steti, but constiti.

In some words, after the syncopation of a consonant, the vowels before and after it are contracted, as junior from juvenior; prudens from providens; Jupiter from Jovipater; bubus from bovibus. Two similar vowels are also contracted into a long vowel, as aliius (gen.) into alius; coopia into copia; diee into die; also dissimilar vowels, as coagito into cogito; coigo into cōgo.

In composition it will be observed that the final letter of a preposition is often dropped, and in trans the two last letters before a word beginning with a consonant; but if the word begins with s, only the s of trans is dropped; e. g., ascendo for ad-scendo; aspicio for ad-spicio; ignosco for in-gnosco; traduco, also written transduco; trado, also written transdo; transero for trans-sero; transcribo for trans-scribo. The initial s of

the second member of the compound is sometimes dropped after ex, as exto for exsto; expecto for exspecto; expiro for exspiro; expergo for exspergo; yet the s in these and similar words is often retained.

Nosco and its derivatives drop an initial g, as notus for gnotus, nomen for gnomen, etc.; but in composition the g is resumed, as cognosco, ignosco (the n of in being dropped);.agnosco, (the d of ad being dropped); agnomen, cognomen, etc.

The additions and omissions in the formation of derived words should not escape notice. Thus in monitor, i is the connecting vowel; in lumen (from luceo), c of the verb is dropped, as are other consonants before a suffix beginning with a consonant; lumen, therefore, being for lucmen; in lustrum (from luo), and monstrum (from moneo), s is merely a euphonic letter; so s in fenestra, between the union vowel e and the ending, and r in lucerna and hodiernus and the like, are merely euphonic. G is omitted in fulmen for fulgmen (comp. fulsi for fulgsi), in submersum for submergsum, to prevent the concurrence of three consonants; so n in potestas for potenstas, and other similar words.

So much for the forms of words. What is here said is by no means exhaustive of the subject; it is designed simply to give a sufficient number of illustrations to cultivate in the pupil the habit of careful observation, and to stimulate him to investigate for himself.

As the English is not an inflected language, the words must generally be arranged in their grammatical order. But in Latin, where the words are inflected, they are arranged with reference to emphasis and euphony, their grammatical relation still being evident from their forms. One of the first things, therefore, to arrest the attention of the student, when he begins to read Latin, will be the seeming irregularity in the

arrangement of the words of a sentence. His attention should accordingly be early directed to the general rules for their position; as, ego et tu, or ego et ille (the reverse of the English); the placing of the emphatic word first in a sentence, sometimes last; the position of the verb generally last; the longer words after monosyllables; the position of the adjective — when before and when after the noun; the position of the gen. when before and when after the noun which governs it; the position of titles, names of honors, etc.

It will be observed also that the Latin has no definite or indefinite article; likewise that, in the construction of the accusative with the infinitive, the English in translation must supply the word that, for which the Latin uses no corresponding word. The pupil is told, too, that after words of fearing ne is to be translated by that, and ut by that not. But he should not rest satisfied with a statement apparently so contradictory as that a negative particle (ne) becomes positive, and a positive one (ut) negative. The difficulty is removed, if it is borne in mind that in such cases with both of these particles there is a verb of hoping understood; e. g. timeo ne pluat (I fear that it will rain, but I hope not); timeo ut pluat (I fear that it will not rain, but I hope that it will).

The relation of the dative both after adjectives and verbs is very often denoted by to or for. But the attentive student will soon learn that what is expressed in Latin by the dative governed by a verb often becomes the direct object of the English verb; e. g. parcere alicui, to spare some one; imperare alicui, to command some one; favere alicui, to favor some one. So, too, the ablative governed by a verb is in some cases made the direct object in English; e. g. frui luce, to enjoy the light; uti armis, to use arms; fungi munere, to discharge one's duty; also what the Latin makes the ablative of means or instrument, the English sometimes makes the direct object of the

verb; as pila ludere (to play with ball), but English, to play ball; flagello sonare (to crack with the whip), English, to crack the whip.

The distinction between the construction of transitive and intransitive verbs in the passive is too often overlooked by the learner, while it should be early fixed in his mind. The Latin says amor, I am loved, why not faveor, I am favored? It says bonitas amatur, why not ætas favetur? The principle will be at once understood when it is observed that neuter or intransitive verbs are used only impersonally in the passive, and hence only in the third person singular. Therefore instead of faveor, I am favored, favetur mihi, favor is extended to me, I am favored; so huic favetur magis quam invidetur, he is favored more than envied; instead of credor, I am believed, mihi creditur; so I, you, he is spared, is mihi, tibi, huic parcitur, not parcor, etc.

Again, the pupil will observe that the Latin says omnes amandi sunt, why not omnes parcendi sunt, all must be spared? The reason will be found the same as before, that intransitive verbs are used in the passive only impersonally; and so where the participle in dus of such verbs is used, it is always impersonal, and consequently in the neuter gender; hence moriendum omnibus, all must die; parcendum omnibus, all must be spared.

The limitation in the use of the gerundive, too, should be carefully observed, for all verbs do not have a gerundive. Among his earliest lessons in Latin, the pupil meets with such expressions as scribendae epistolae causa, for the sake of writing a letter; ad scribendam epistolam, to write a letter; tresviri reipublicae constituendae, three commissioners for settling the constitution, why not then parcendae urbis causa, for the sake of sparing the city; ad providendam patriam, to provide for the interests of the country; parendi imperatoris cupiditas, a