A. D. 911. while the court of Charles was established on the banks of the Moselle. At length Eudes died, and Charles became the sole monarch of France. 10. After an absolute blank of some years, we meet with an account of the appearance of Rollo, the most celebrated of the Norman chieftains. He every where defeated the French forces, seized on Rouen, which he converted into a place of arms, and struck the king with so much terror, that he resolved to purchase peace on any conditions. He sent a bishop as an ambassador to Rollo, offering to give him his daughter in marriage, and cede the province of Neustria to him and his followers, provided that he should become a Christian, acknowledge the king of France as his feudal sovereign, and aid in repelling any future invasions of his countrymen. Rollo, to whom religion was a matter of perfect indifference, assented to all the conditions, stipulating only that Bretagne should be ceded to him until the other province was cultivated. This was granted, the marriage soon afterwards took place, and Rollo paid homage to the crown more like a conqueror than a vassal. A. D. 11. The weakness and incapacity of Charles became 923. every day more apparent; he allowed himself to be entirely governed by Haganon, a man of low birth, hated by the nobility, and despised by the people. Robert, brother of king Eudes, appeared in arms against him; and Charles, instead of levying an army, assembled a council, where he procured the excommunication of his opponents. 12. After a slight struggle, Robert was killed in battle, and his son, Hugh the Great, or the Abbot, though he might have obtained the crown for himself, chose rather to bestow it on Raoul or Rodolph, duke of Burgundy. Rodolph gained over the nobles by lavish donations of the land which still belonged to the crown; Charles was made a prisoner, and his 929. queen Elgiva fled to the court of her brother Athelstan, king of England, accompanied by her son, a boy about nine years old. Herbert, count de Vernandois, had obtained possession of the person of the unhappy Charles, under the pretence of undertaking his defence; but he detained him a prisoner, in order to procure good terms from Rodolph by threatening him with the liberation of his rival. By this means he procured the county of Laon from the new sove reign, and Charles soon afterwards died, poisoned, as it is said, by the count de Vernandois. A. D. 13. During his unhappy reign, France was for ever deprived of Germany and the empire. Despising the weakness of Charles the Simple, the German states unanimously elected Otho, duke of Saxony, to the imperial throne; but Otho declining it on account of his advanced age, proposed Conrad, duke of Franconia, and his choice was confirmed by the assembly of the states. This monarch died in 919, recommending to the nobility Henry, son of his benefactor Otho, as his successor. At a general assembly of the states this recommendation was adopted; and Henry, surnamed the Fowler, from his love of hawking, obtained possession of the empire. This prince and his immediate successors were celebrated for their valour and prudence; they restored tranquillity to the middle of Europe, and thus the house of Saxony became the heirs both to the glory and power of Charlemagne. 14. Though Rodolph was nominally king of France, all the real power of the state was lodged in the hands of Hugh the Great, who had raised him to the throne. In addition to his hereditary property, he enjoyed the revenues of so many abbeys, that he is frequently called the Abbot. The possessions of the church were now so great that they had attracted the cupidity of the laity, and though the papal see frequently endeavoured to check such a glaring abuse, it con- A. D. tinued to prevail during this and the following age. 935. Rodolph did not long enjoy the crown; he survived the unhappy Charles about six years, leaving no children. Rollo, the conqueror of Normandy, died about three years before, leaving his son William, surnamed longue epée, or Long-sword, the heir both of his principality and his virtues The laws were at this time regulated pretty much by the king's will. The ancient Franks had an annual meeting, at which all the wars for the coming year were regulated, and the tribute due to the king was usually brought to him. These meetings were originally held in March, which was the beginning of the old French year, and were called les Champs de Mars; afterwards the time of meeting was in the month of May, and these meetings were then called les Champs de Mai. Besides these annual assemblies, there were, in the time of Charlemagne, frequent meetings held by the bishops and nobles, for discussing the business of the state there were also lesser provincial parliaments for the regulation of the affairs of each province. As regards the nature of the laws in force at this period, it is extremely doubtful whether the Franks had any written system, code, or maxims of jurisprudence. It is generally believed, indeed, that they were governed by mere customs and traditions brought with them from Germany, and having reference chiefly to the unsettled life they had been accustomed to lead among their native wilds. This, however, is certain, that, in operation, the laws or customs were merely prohibitive, penal, and retributive; and that almost every kind of offence might be compounded for with money. "The right concealed under this custom of composition," it has been said, "is that of every man to do himself justice, and to avenge himself by force. It is the war between the offender and the offended .. the latter preserving, in the most barbarous times, the right of election between composition and war,-of rejecting the wehrgeld, and having recourse to vengeance.' Men's lives were valued at a fixed rate, according to their rank and station. The Frank, his wife, his free tenant, and his serf, were not estimated at the same sum, but their personal security was made matter of tariff. Though the wehrgeld of the king was highest of any, the life of the serf was likewise protected-from all but his master-by the pecuniary value set upon it. A leg, an arm, an eye, a finger, had each its separate worth, according to the wehr of its owner. From his lord the unhappy serf had no protection. He was a chattel upon the freeman's domain, and was constantly bought and sold as such, in the same way as a horse, or an ox,-his value being somewhat more than that of the latter and less than the former. He had no power to change his situation or condition, to move from one place of residence to another, or to marry, except with permission of his owner:-and if he did marry, the abominable law of mercheta taught him how abject was his slavery, and how barbarous the power and appetite of his conqueror. O mortal, mortal state! and what art thou? ESCHYLUS. A. D. 936. 1. On the death of Rodolph, the supreme power remained in the hands of Hugh, who, in addition to the county of Paris, his paternal inheritance, possessed the duchies of France and Burgundy. Either disliking the title of king, or dreading the jealousy of the nobles, Hugh a second time refused the crown, and invited Louis, the son of Charles, to return from his place of refuge in England, and assume the reins of government. 2. Athelstan dreading some treachery, endeavoured to dissuade his nephew from compliance; but the young prince was eager to return to his country, and the character of Hugh removed all grounds of apprehension. Louis, surnamed d'Outremer, or the Stranger, was received on his landing with the greatest respect; Hugh conducted him to Rheims, where he was crowned by the title of Louis IV. 3. Louis was superior to his predecessors in ability and courage, but he was destitute of honour and integrity, deficiencies which made all his other qualities ineffectual. Hugh had indeed invited Louis to return, but had not the slightest intention of giving up the administration. The king made an attempt to obtain the reins of power, but Hugh then became his enemy, placed him under restraint, and did not restore his liberty until he had ceded the county of Laon, which was almost the only part of the royal domains that remained unappropriated. 4. Hugh had been excommunicated by several councils, and even by the pope: the clergy, and especially the bishops of Lorraine, consequently embraced the cause of Louis, and thus originated a war which continued for several years. The principal ally of Hugh in this conflict was William Longue epée, duke of Normandy, one of the bravest nobles of the time. 5. The count of Flanders adopted the royal cause, and having a private quarrel with the duke of Normandy, procured him to be assassinated under circumstances of the greatest treachery. William left a young son named Richard, whom Louis brought to court under pretence of undertaking the care of his education. 6. The count of Flanders instigated the king to murder the orphan, but by a stratagem of Osmond, his governor, the young prince was rescued from their grasp, and placed under the protection of his maternal uncle, the count de Senlis. Soon after these A. D. transactions Louis was made a prisoner by the count de Senlis, and could not obtain his freedom until he had restored several places in Normandy, which he had unjustly seized on. Richard was at length established in his dukedom; he was a good and a pious prince, equally conspicuous for his personal graces and moral qualifications. The Norman historians called him Richard Sans Peur, or the Fearless, and relate many anecdotes of his piety, charity, and intrepidity. 945. 7. Louis d'Outremer died in the thirty-third year of his |