of envy is joy of other men's harm, and that is properly like to the devil, that ever rejoiceth him of men's harm.

Of these two species cometh backbiting; and this sin of backbiting or detracting hath certain kinds; as thus, one man praises his neighbour by a wicked intent, for alway he maketh a wicked knot at the last end that is more worthy of blame than all the former praising. The second species is that if a man be good, or doeth, or sayeth a thing to good intent, the backbiter will turn all that goodness up and down to his shrewd intent. The third, is to disparage the bounty of his neighbour. The fourth kind of backbiting is this, that if men speak goodness of a man, then will the backbiter say, "Parfoy, such an man is better than he," in dispraising of him that men praise. The fifth kind is this, for to consent gladly to hearken the harm that men speak of other folk. This sin is full great, and aye increaseth after the wicked intent of the backbiter.

After backbiting cometh grudging or murmuring, and sometime it springeth of impatience against God, and sometimes against man. Against God, it is when a man grudgeth against the pain of death, or against poverty, or loss of goods, or against rain or tempest; or else grudgeth that shrews have prosperity, or else that good men have adversity; and all these things should men suffer patiently, for they come by the rightful judgment and ordinance of God.

Sometime cometh grudging of avarice, as Judas grudged against the Magdalene, when she anointed our Lord with her precious ointment. This manner of murmuring is such, as when man grudgeth of goodness that himself doeth, or that other folks do of their own goods. Sometimes cometh murmur of pride, as when Simon the Pharisee grudged against the Magdalene, when she approached to Jesus and wept at his feet for her sins; and sometimes it sourdeth (rises) of envy, when men discover a man's harm that was privy, or beareth him on hand anything that is false.

Murmur also is oft among servants, that grudge when their sovereigns bid them do lawful things; and for as

much as they dare not openly withsay the commandment of their sovereigns, yet will they say harm, and grudge, and murmur privily for very despite, which words they call the "Devil's Pater Noster," though so be that the Devil had never a "Pater Noster," but that lewd folk gave it such a name.

Then cometh ire or private hate, that nourisheth rancour in the heart, as afterward I shall declare. Then cometh eke bitterness of heart, through which bitterness every good deed of his neighbour seemeth to him bitter and unsavoury. Then cometh discord that unbindeth all manner of friendship. Then cometh scorning of his neighbour, if he do never so well. Then cometh accusing, as when a man seeketh occasion to annoy his neighbour, which is like the craft of the devil, that waiteth both day and night to accuse us all. Then cometh malignity, through which a man annoyeth his neighbour privily if he may, and if he may not, algate his wicked will shall not let, as for to burn his house privily or empoison him, or slay his beasts, and semblable things.

JOHN WYCLIFFE.

JOHN WYCLIFFE, one of the early Reformers in the Church of England, and translator of the Bible, was born in Yorkshire, A.D. 1324, and died at his rectory, Luckworth, Leicestershire, A.D. 1384. He was the author of numerous theological treatises. The extract is from a Christmas sermon.

THE BIRTH OF CHRIST.

On this day we may affirm that a child is born to us, since Jesus, according to our belief, was this day born. Both in figure and in letter God spoke of old to this intent, that to us a child should be born, in whom we should have joy. From this three short lessons are to be delivered, that men may rejoice in the after services of this child.

First, we hold it as a part of our faith, that as our first parents had sinned, there must be atonement made for it, according to the righteousness of God. For as God is merciful, so is he full of righteousness. But, except he keep his righteousness on this point, how shall he judge all the world. There is no sin done but what is against God, but this sin was done directly against the Lord Almighty and Allrightful. The greater also the Lord is against whom any sin is done, the greater always is the sin-just as to do against the king's bidding is deemed the greatest of offences. But the sin which is done against God's bidding, is greater without measure. Hence, according to the righteousness of God, this sin must be punished.

It is to speak lightly to say that God might of his mere power forgive this sin without the atonement which was made for it, since the justice of God would not suffer this, which requires that every trespass be punished either on earth or hell. God may not accept a person to forgive him his sin without an atonement, else he must give free licence to sin, both in angels and men, and their sin were no sin, and our God were no God.

Such is the first lesson we take as a part of our faith. The second is, that the person who may make atonement for the sin of our first father, must needs be God and man. For as men's nature trespassed, so must men's nature render atonement. An angel therefore would attempt in vain to make atonement for man, for he has not the power to do it, neither was his the nature that sinned. But since all men form one person, if any member of this person maketh atonement, the whole person maketh it. But we may see that if God made a man of nought, or strictly anew, yet were he bound to God to the extent of his power for himself, having nothing wherewith to make atonement for his own, or for Adam's sin. Since then atonement must be made for the sin of Adam, as we have shown, the person to make the atonement must be God and man, for then the worthiness of this person's deeds were even with the unworthiness of the sin.

And we suppose that this child is only born to the men who follow him in his manner of life, for he was born against others. The men who are unjust and proud, and who rebel against God, may read their judgment in the person of Christ. By him they must needs be condemned, and most certainly if they continue toward him, and his spirit to their death. And if we covet sincerely that this child may prove to be born to us, have we joy of him and follow we him in these three virtues, in righteousness and meekness, and in patience for our God. For, whoever shall be against Christ and his Spirit in these unto his death, must needs be condemned of this child, as others must needs be saved.

And thus the joy professed in this child, who was all meekness and full of virtues, should make men to be children in malice, and then they would keep this festival. To those who would indulge in strife, we would say, that the child who is born is also Prince of peace, and loveth peace, and condemneth men contrary to peace.

Reflect we then how Christ came in the fulness of time, when he should; and how he came in meekness, teaching us this at his birth; and how he came in patience, suffering even from his birth unto his death; and follow we him in these things, for the joy that we here have in him, and because this joy in the patience of Christ bringeth to joy that shall ever last.

WILLIAM CAXTON.

WILLIAM CAXTON, author and translator, is better known as a printer. The first book printed in England was executed by him at Westminster, A.D. 1474. And before his death, in 1491, he issued from his press sixty works, chiefly translations, but partly written by himself.

DIVERSITY AND CHANGE OF LANGUAGE-
ANGLO-SAXON, AND OLD ENGLISH.

SOME gentlemen

late blamed me, saying, that in my translations I had over curious terms, which could

B

not be understood of common people, and desired me to use old and homely terms in my translations. And fain would I satisfy every man; and so to do, took an old book and read therein; and certainly the English was so rude and broad that I could not well understand it. And also, my Lord Abbot of Westminster did show to me late, certain evidences written in old English for to reduce it into our English now used; and, certainly, it was more like to Dutch than English; I could not reduce it, nor bring it to be understood. And, certainly, our language now used varieth far from that which was used and spoken when I was born; for we Englishmen be born under the domination of the moon, which is never stedfast but ever wavereth, waxing one season, and waneth and decreaseth another season; and that common English that is spoken in one shire, varieth from another.

Insomuch that, in my days happened that certain merchants were in a ship in Thames, for to have sailed over the sea into Zealand, and for lack of wind, they tarried at Foreland, and went to land for to refresh them; and one of them named Sheffielde, a mercer, came to an house and asked for meat, and especially he asked for eggs; and the good wife answered that she could speak no French; and the merchant was angry, for he also could speak no French, but would have had eggs, and she understood him not. And then, at last, another said that he would have eyren; then the good wife said that she understood him well.

Lo! what should a man in these days write, eggs or eyren? Certainly it is hard to please every man by cause of diversity and change of language. For, in these days, every man that is in any reputation in his country will utter his communication and matters in such manners and terms that few men will understand him. And some honest and good clerks have been with me and desired me to write the most curious terms that I could find.

And thus, between plain, rude, and curious I stand abashed; but in my judgment, the common terms that be daily used, be lightlier to be understood than the old and ancient English,