been commanded official expense students," i. e. "They have been commanded to become students at government expense," or more freely, "They have been notified that the expenses of their education will be defrayed by the government." Ya, a particle of interrogation, doubt, or exclamation. I. As a directly interrogative particle, its use is chiefly confined to sentences which contain some other interrogative word, and to those in which the question asked is a purely rhetorical one, i.e. not a question properly so-called, asked in order to elicit information. Thus: Kono toki ni atatte, waga Nihon no jimmin wa ikaga su-beki ya? "In such a case how would our Japanese compatriots act?" Karada wa koromo yori mo masareru mono narazu ya? "Is not the body more than raiment ?" II. Its more frequent use is as a dubitative particle. Thus: Moshi ya, "If perchance." ...to iu ga, sono jitsu ika ni ya, "It is said that but we know not whether it is true." Heiba no aida ni ai-miru ni itaru ya mo hakaru-bekarazu, "Who knows? perhaps we may encounter each other on the field of battle." III. At the end of a sentence ya is sometimes a mere exclamation: Makoto naru kana kono koto ya, 66 Oh! how true these words are!" (kana is another exclamation or interjection, generally best rendered, as here, by "how!"). IV. Good writers sometimes (in imitation of Chinese idiom) use ya in a half emphatic half exclamatory manner. Thus Kono ku taru ya, kare wo hyō shi-etari to iu-beshi, "How exactly the phrase may be said to paint his character!" (more lit. "This phrase,-how exactly [one] may say that it has been able to paint his character!") In such cases ya is equivalent to wa, plus a certain exclamatory force. But sometimes it sinks into a mere expletive, as ima ya, "now"; kanarazu ya, "positively."-The syntax of ya presents some anomalies, ya being occasionally preceded by the conclusive instead of by the attributive form of the verb or adjective, especially in the case of the present tense of adjectives, of the present tense of the verb aru, "to be" (conclusive ari), and of the present tense of the negative voice of verbs and adjectives in general. This happens chiefly when the question asked is a rhetorical one, as in the example from the New Testament on the previous page (concl. narazu for attrib. narazaru). The final verb or adjective of a sentence containing ya is also often put in the conclusive, contrary to the general rule whereby interrogative words govern the final verb or adjective in the attributive form. The exception is more apparent than real, as it occurs almost exclusively in cases where ya is not properly interrogative, but has one of the meanings given above under headings II. and III., where an example will be found (concl. bekarazu for attrib. bekarazaru). In IV the Conclusive is always used. to Ye, "to," less often "towards," sometimes "at": Tōkyō ye kuru, "to come to Tōkyō"; Yokohama ye tōchaku suru, arrive at Yokohama." 66 Yori, from," since," "than": Beikoku yori, "from America." Sakujitsu yori, “since yesterday." Tsuki hana yori utsukushiki wa naki nari, "There is nothing more beautiful than the moon and the flowers." Yori always means "since" when it is suffixed to a gerund. The Japanese often use yori in the sense of "from" where English idiom uses "in," "at," "on," or "by," or drops all prepositions, thus: Gozen hachi-ji yori kaijo," lit. "From forenoon eight o'clock open place," i.e. "To open at 8 o'clock" the idea being that the place will be open from 8 o'clock till some other hour not mentioned. Un-un Nōshō-mushō yori tasseraretari, “Such and such a thing has been notified by (lit. "from") the Department of Agriculture and Commerce." Preceded by a negative, yori sometimes means "unless,' 66 except by," "without": Kenshiki aru ni arazaru yori wa, kesshite taiko kekkyo no iseki to mitomuru wo ezaru-beki ni itareri, "They are reduced to such a state that it would be quite impossible, except for an expert, to recognize in them the remains of very ancient cavedwellings." When thus used, yori is almost always strengthened by the addition of wa. Zo, an emphatic particle less intense than koso, but best rendered in English by either of the means mentioned under koso, page 23. In classical Japanese, the final verb or adjective of any clause or sentence in which zo occurs is put in the attributive instead of in the conclusive form. Examples of this construction are occasionally met with in the modern written style, thus: Kore zo jitsu ni konnichi Yoroppa ni oite gakumon no oi ni shimpo seru yuen naru (for the conclusive nari), "It is this which is really the cause of the great progress of science in Europe at the present day." I. Many of the postpositions can be combined, in order to particularize or emphasize the sense, as made ni, “until,” for made, "till"; yori mo, " even than." Wo wa is changed into woba, and is used to denote a particularly emphatic accusative, thus: Ware mo shōgai kinu woba mi ni matou-maji, "In silk will I too never array myself all my life long." In such combinations as no wa, no ni, to wa, an ellipsis must be supplied, thus: Yoki hito ga tanin wo tasukuru no [koto] wa, kesshite waga tame wo hakarite suru koto ni wa arazaru nari, lit. “As for the act of a good man's helping others, it is certainly not a thing he does calculating his own interest," i.e. "When a good man helps others, he never does so out of regard to his own interest." Ten to [iu mono] wa, "What is called heaven," "What is meant by the term heaven,” II.-There is a large class of compound postpositions formed from nouns by prefixing no (less often ga), and generally suffixing ni. Thus :- no kage ni, "behind" (lit. "in the shadow of "). 66 no kawari ni, "instead of," "in return for," as compensa no tame ni, no ue ni, ga ue ni, 99 66 tion for," on the other hand." “for the sake of,” “by.” sides,” “ after," 66 over and above,' "on,' "" in relation to." ""besides." Examples: Iwa no kage (ni), "Behind the rocks." Uma no tame ni keraruru, "To be kicked by a horse." Zanji kyusoku no ue, "After a short rest." Iya ga ue ni, "On the top of one another," "Ever more and more." After verbs, the chief member of these compound postpositions is sometimes used alone, without either no or ni, as: Eien ni tsutōru tame, order to hand it down for ever." 66 In III. There is a class of compound postpositions formed by ni or wo and a verb, the verb generally appearing as a gerund or else in the indefinite form. The most important postpositions of this class are: ni oite, "in," "on," "at." This compound postposition often serves to denote what we should call the subject of the sentence (conf. ni). Ni oite wa sometimes signifies "in the event of," "if,' thus: Shina Seifu ni oite kore wo shōdaku sezaru ni oite wa, "In the event of the Chinese government not consenting," If the Chinese government should not consent." "If (In this sentence the first ni oite serves to mark the word which corresponds to the English nominative, while the second means "if"). Ni oite wo ya at the of a sentence has a very strong exclamatory force. It is generally preceded by iwan ya at the beginning of the sentence or clause, and should be rendered, according to circumstances, by "how much more " or "how much less." Thus: Jiji wo kataru mo nao katsu gakusha no hombun ni arazu; iwan ya jiji wo okonau ni oite wo ya! "Even to discourse on passing events is not the proper occupation of a scholar; how much less is it for him to direct passing events!" ni okeru, "in," "position in," "relations with," "compared with": Ei no Indo ni okeru ga gotoku, "Like England's position in India." ni shite, "being," "as," "in the capacity of": Gaikokujin ni shite, "As a foreigner." It is also used in many contexts where it must be translated by an adverb or adverbial phrase: Saiwai ni shite, "fortunately"; zanji ni shite, “After a little while." ni tsuki, "with reference to" "owing to"......no gi ni tsuki, "With reference to the matter of......" 66 ni yori }, 'owing to," "because of," " "by means of,” ni yotte "according to": Rei ni yori, "According to precedent," 66 as usual." Kore ni yotte, "On account of this." to shite, "as": Sharei to shite, "As a token of gratitude.” wo motte, (lit. "having held ") "through," "by," "with," by means of," "owing to" "because ": Tegami wo motte, "by letter." Sakunen no henran okorishi wo motte, "Owing to the occurrence of disturbances last year." Sometimes wo motte sinks into being a mere sign of what we should term the accusative case, as: Inoue Haku wo motte Tokuha Zenken Daishi to nashi......, "Appointing Count Inoue as Special Envoy Plenipotentiary." Motte without wo generally signifies "and thereby," "and thus." But both wo motte and motte may often be neglected in translating, though some trace of their proper meaning generally lingers in the original Japanese, thus: Gundan wo mōke, motte kokka wo hogo su, "We raise troops to |