III. Followed by the attributive form of one of the tenses of "to be," thus :—

the verb naru,

kenso naru michi, "a steep road; lit." a steepness-being road; nodoka naru tenki, "genial weather," lit. "genialitybeing weather"; shinsetsu narishi hito, "a kind person," lit. "kindness having-been person."

2.-Words of this third class correspond to English adverbs, if the postposition ni (more rarely to) is substituted for the verb naru, thus:-kenso ni, "steeply"; nodoka ni, "genially; shizen to "naturally."

3. Many words corresponding to English adverbs are formed by reduplicating nouns, as tabi-tabi, "often," from tabi, "a time." Many such reduplicated words are onomatopes, similar to the English "ding-dong," "pellmell, etc. Thus gasa-gasa or goso-goso, representing a rustling sound; tobo-tobo, descriptive of the tottering steps of an old crone. Occasionally they are derived from adjective stems, as sugo-sugo, descriptive of low spirits, from sugoki, "ill at ease."

4.-All Chinese words are treated as nouns by the Japanese, being used either I. as substantives proper, e.g. kin “gold "; jitsu, "truth"; ketsu, "decision"; hatsumei, " "decision"; hatsumei, "discovery," "invention,"; or II. adjectively, according to one or other of the three methods just mentioned, e.g. jitsu-butsu," a genuine article"; jitsu naru oshie, "a true doctrine ; or III. adverbially, by suffixing ni or to, e.g. jitsu ni "truly "; or IV. as verbs, by suffixing suru, "to do," e.g. kes-suru, "to decide"; hatsumei suru, "to discover"; "to invent," kinzuru, "to forbid "; or V. as onomatopes, e.g. kai-kai, supposed to represent the voice of the nightingale; yū-yū, descriptive of the calm appearance of the distant heavens.

CHAPTER IV.

THE PRONOUN.

SEC. 1. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

The Japanese words corresponding to the personal pronouns of European languages are simply nouns whose original significations are in most cases perfectly clear, and which are indeed still often used with those significations. They answer to such English expressions as "your humble servant" (meaning "I"). Self-depreciatory terms are naturally used to represent what we should call the first person, and complimentary terms to represent the second person, thus: boku, "servant";

ses-sha, "the awkward person";

shin, "subject";

shō-sei, "small born," "young";

soregashi, "a certain person";

ware, (original meaning uncertain);
watakushi, "selfishness";

yo, (etymology uncertain);

I.

Your Majesty.

Your Excellency.

Ki-ka, "beneath augustness";

Kimi, "prince";

nanji, (believed to have originally

meant "renowned");

sok-ka, "beneath the feet";

etc.

etc.

you.

N.B.-Some of these are also used as titles suffixed to other nouns. Thus:-Tennō Heika, " His Majesty the Emperor." Postpositions can be suffixed to the above, as to any other nouns. Thus:-soregashi no, " of me," "my;" soregashi wo, "me." Instead of ware no, "of me," "my," the form waga (for ware ga) is in common use.

The plural suffixes are more often used with the quasipersonal pronouns than with any other class of nouns. Thus-sessha-domo, shin-ra, ware-ra (or ware-ware), watakushidomo (sometimes also used for the singular), yo-ra, "we;" kimi-tachi, sokka-tachi, nanji ra, "you." In some cases plurality is otherwise expressed, e.g. by the term waga hai, lit. "our company," the usual equivalent for the English editorial we."

66

The only word closely corresponding to our pronouns of the third person is kare, "that." Periphrases, such as kano hito, "that person" (i.e. "he" or "she"), are sometimes employed, as are also the honorific designations mentioned above as equivalents for the second person. Very often the word sono, which properly means "that" (French ce), is used to signify "his," "her," "its," thus:-sono haha, "his mother."

The word onore (plural onore-ra), "self," may be of any person; but it is most commonly met with in the sense of "I."

The quasi-personal pronouns are very little used, the information they might supply being left to be gathered from

the context in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred in which personal pronouns would be used by the speakers of European tongues.

SEC. 2. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

The nouns corresponding to our reflexive pronouns are jibun, jishin, onore, "self"; ono ga, "own"; waga, properly "my," but also used more generally in the sense of "own," "one's own." They are comparatively little used.

SEC. 3.

DEMONSTRATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

The words answering to our demonstrative and interrogative pronouns are :—

kore, "this" (Latin hic, French celui-ci, celle-ci, ceci.)

sore,

"that" ("

iste,

celui-là, celle-là, cela.) kare, "that"," "he," "she," "it," (Latin ille, French,

celui-là, celle-là, cela.)

tare, "who?”

nani, "what?"

izure, “which ?”

The foregoing are the substantive forms, before leaving which the student should note the plurals kore-ra, "these' (ceux-ci, celles-ci), sore-ra and kare-ra (ceux-là, celles-là). The adjective forms, i.e. those that are employed to define nouns, are:

kono, "this" (Latin hic, French ce).

sono, “that” ( iste,

ce).

The forms kono, sono, and kano also do duty for kore no, "of this"; sore no and kare no, "of that," of which they are contractions. Thus kono kuni, "this country"; kono tame ni, "for the sake of this." Sono also frequently means "his,” "her," "its." The old forms soga and taga occasionally

replace sono and tare no. Tare is used of persons only, nani of things only (save in one or two compounds such as nani-bito or nam-pito, "what person ?"), izure of both persons and things. Before words of Chinese origin, "this" and "that" are frequently expressed by to. Thus :-tōji, "this time," "that time," "at the time in question."

"What kind of ?" is expressed by ika naru, the corresponding adverb ika ni meaning "how?"

"where?,

words

Note also itsu, "when?" and izuko, which are really nouns, though corresponding to English interrogative adverbs. Like other nouns, they take postpositions to modify their sense, thus :

itsu no koto narishi?" lit. "it was a thing of when?" i.e. "when did it happen?"

izuko ye, lit. "to where?" i.e."whither?

izuko yori, lit. "from where ?" i.e. " whence?"

The indefinite pronouns are formed from tare, nani, and izure in the following manner :

tare mo, 66

anyone," "everyone";

tare ka, "someone."

nani mo, "anything," "everything"; nani ka, "something."

izure mo, "either,"

"both"; "all"; izure ka, "one or other."

SEC. 5. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

The Japanese language has no relative pronouns or relative words of any kind. The way in which their absence is made good will be understood from the following examples :— yukishi hito, "the person who went" (lit. "the went person");