ling of houses, stopping crevices in walls, packing brittle wares, and the roots of plants, for distant conveyance.

"To which may be added, that all in general contribute entertainment and agreeable instruction to the contemplative mind of the naturalist, at a season when few other plants offer themselves to his view.

"The Fungi have been suspected by some to be, like sponges and corals, the habitations of some unknown living beings, and being alkaline, have been classed in the animal kingdom; but they are known to produce seeds, from which perfect plants have been raised; and the celebrated Hedwig, by great dexterity of dissection, and by using microscopes of very highly magnifying powers, assures us that he has discovered both stamens and pistils, not only in this order of plants, but in the other orders of the Cryptogamous family."

Order Hepatica, or Liverworts.

The 3d Order contains the Liverworts, which are more succulent or juicy than the mosses; they have four-valved thecæ, which circumstance, and that of their not opening with a lid, distinguish them from the mosses. Their name, Hepaticæ, signifies liver; but it is not yet known whether they received that name on account of some supposed virtue in curing diseases of the liver, or whether it was because they were thought to resemble the lobes or divisions of that organ. One of the most common genera of this order is the Junger mannia; you may here see (Fig. 154) a species of this, the compla nata, with its parts, as represented under a magnifier.

a, is a plant of natural size, in fruit. b, the fruit magnified, showing the sheath, the peduncle rising from it, and the theca at top, not yet burst. c, the open capsule splitting and dis

charging the seeds. d, the theca empty, showing its four valves.

Order Algae, or Sea- Weeds.

The 4th Order includes the sea-weeds and frog-spittle; these have leathery fronds, with fine dust-like seed, enclosed in inflated portions of the frond. They are almost always aquatics; generally green or reddish. One genus of this family is the Fucus. The Fucus natans, sometimes called the gulf-weed, is very abundant in the Gulf of Florida, and is found in various parts of the ocean, forming masses or floating fields, many miles in extent. The plant seems to possess no distinct root, though it perhaps originally vegetated on some seabeaten shore, from whence it was by accident thrown upon the ocean's wave.

The Fucus giganteus is said to have a frond of immense length; from whence its specific name, signifying gigantic. You are here

*Notwithstanding the weight which Thornton, author of the above quotation, gives to the opinion of Hedwig and others, it is, at present, much doubted by natural. ists, whether the Fungi have organs analogous to stamens and pistils.

Describe Fig. 154-Liverworts-Derivation of the name-Sea-weeds-Fuci-Gulfweed.

presented (Fig. 155) with a delineation of three kinds of Fuci.* a, is Fucus nodosus, (knobbed fucus;) this has forked fronds. The knobs which appear in the fronds are airbladders, which render it peculiarly buoyant

upon the water. This is often more than six feet long. b, Fucus vesiculosus, (bladder fucus;) here the air-bladders are mostly axillary, and at the sides of the midrib. It varies in length from one to four feet. On account of its mucilaginous property it forms a good manure; in some of the countries of Lapland it is boiled with meal, and given for food to cattle. c, Fucus serratus; this has a beautiful serrate frond.

The Fuci,† on burning, afford an impure soda, called kelp.

Order Lichenes, or LICHENS.

The 5th Order contains the LICHENS; these are various in texture, form, and colour; they are leathery, woody, leaf-like, white, yellow, green, and black. When wet, they often appear like green herbage; some are seen on stones, or old fences and buildings; others with strong, green filaments, are suspended from branches of trees, and improperly called mosses. The fruit of the Lichen consists of saucer-like bodies, called apothecia, in which the seeds are contained; this may be seen in the following delineation. Fig. 156, a, represents

a

a lichen, of a leaflike appearance; here the apothecia imbedded in the leaves are very apparent. b, is a lichen resembling a drinkingglass. c, is the rein-deer moss, furnishing almost the sole food of that useful animal, so important

to the existence of the Laplander. In the middle of Europe it grows only to the height of two or three inches; but in Lapland it sometimes attains to the height of one foot and a half.

Many of the lichens are useful on account of their colouring matter. Litmus, which is so common as a chemical test for acids and alkalies, is obtained from a species of white lichen, called Orchal, or Archil, this is also used for giving a crimson colour to wool and silk. The powder called cudbear, used for dying purple, is obtained from

*See also Appendix, Plate viii. Fig. 8, 9, 10, 11.

+ l'uci is the plural of Fucus.

1 hree kinds of Fuci-Kelp-Lichens-Explain Fig. 156-Uses of the lichens.

a lichen. The order Lichen has sometimes been included under one genus called Lichen, and placed in the order Alga.

Order Fungi, or MUSHROOMS,

The 6th Order contains the Mushrooms, or fungus plants; these never exhibit any appearance of green herbage; they are generally corky, fleshy, or mould-like, varying much in form and colour. The fruit of some is external, of others internal. They are often of very quick growth and short duration. The genus Agaricus, which contains the common eatable mushroom, has a convex, scaly, white head, called a pileus; this is supported on a stalk called a stipe. On the under surface of the pileus, or cup, are seen many flesh-coloured membranes called gills. These gills, in the young state of the mushroom, are concealed by a wrapper called a volva, which is considered as a kind of calyx. As the mushroom becomes older, the volva bursts and remains upon the stipe, while the pileus, released from its confinement, extends upwards and exhibits an uneven appearance upon its edge, caused by its separation from the volva.

Fig. 157 represents the most important parts of the mushroom; a, the gills running from the stipe to the circumference, under the pileus; b, a young mushroom, with the pileus of a globular form, and not separated from the volva; c, the volva, or wrapper, bursting and separating from the pileus so as to exhibit the gills beneath; d, part of the volva remaining upon the stipe in a circular form, and called an annulus, or ring. "If the mushroom be left for a time on a plate of glass, a powder will be found deposited; this is the seed,* or organic germ. That these are capable of germination, is evident to cultivators, who now form mushroom beds, by strewing the decayed plants on prepared beds of manure."

A species of the genus Agaricus is common in Italy, and much valued for food; it is of a fine red or orange-colour; the ancient Romans esteemed it as a great luxury. The genus Boletus contains the touchwood, or spunk, which is sometimes used as tinder. The LYCOPERDON Contains the puff-ball.

The Cryptogamous plants are probably the least understood of all the visible works of nature. Philosophers have asserted that some of this race do not belong to the vegetable, but to the animal kingdom; having discovered insects in mushrooms, they say, like the sponge and the corals, these should be classed among animal productions. Few, however, at present, entertain this belief; and the fact of their having been raised from seed sprinkled on the earth, proves them to be of vegetable growth. A curious field of inquiry presents itself in the consideration of the difference between animal and vegetable life. This we shall hereafter partially examine; not, however, expecting to decide upon this subject, for in our researches

Order Mushrooms-Explain Fig. 157-Mushrooms capable of germination-Different genera-Opinions of some philosophers respecting the Cryptogamous plants.

into the natural world we are continually led to exclaim, "the ways of the Almighty are unsearchable, and past finding out!"

After what has been remarked upon the difficulty of analyzing these plants, the young pupil will not be likely to expect too much from attempts to investigate them. It is well for mankind that there are philosophers, whom the enthusiasm of scientific pursuits will lead to spend years, even a whole life, in searching into the fructification of a moss, or mushroom, or in examining into the natural history of a gnat or spider;* as thus, discoveries are continually brought forward, which add to the general stock of knowledge. This is a kind of martyrdom in the cause of science, to which but few seem called by the powerful impulses of their own minds. Females, in particular, are not expected to enter into the recesses of the temple of science; it is but of late that they have been encouraged to approach even to its portals, and to venture a glance upon the mysteries within.

We have now completed our view of the vegetable world, according to the order in which the different tribes of plants have presented themselves. As we followed in the train of classification, we have endeavoured to notice the most conspicuous genera, and to trace their natural relations while considering their artificial arrangement. In many cases, departing from the plan of general remarks, we have traced the natural history of some one genus, believing this method more likely to make a permanent impression, than merely general views. In reading the history of nations, we often feel less interested in the fate of a whole people, than in that of some prominent individual; the mind presented with general ideas only, has no opportunity of forming images, which are but an aggregate of particulars. It is in natural as in civil history,-general remarks upon the beauty and utility of the vegetable world, or the curious structure of plants, make but slight impressions. But by contemplating the peculiarities of some one tribe, genus, or species, the mind seizes upon something definite, and reason, imagination, and feeling are easily awakened; thus the impression made is permanent. When you now look back upon the view you have taken of the vegetable world, and consider what impressions are most lively in your minds, you will probably find them to be respecting some peculiarities of individual plants. Of this tendency of the mind we should avail ourselves by connecting these particular impressions with facts which lead to general principles. Narrow indeed would be our mental vision, were it confined to single unconnected observations, laid up indiscriminately in the storehouse of thought; but our minds, not by our own will, but by a faculty received directly from our Creator, instinctively generalize and arrange their mass of single observations; and we, with scarcely an effort, perform that operation in the world of thought within us, which the great Linnæus effected in the vegetable kingdom.

* I have been gravely assured by a naturalist of distinction, that the study of spiders is one of the most elegant and delightful of all pursuits.

Enthusiasm of some naturalists-View of classification completed-Tendency ol the mind to generalize.

PART IV.

LECTURE XXXVIII.

THE FLOWERING SEASON OF PLANTS.

Vernal and Summer Flowers.

ON entering the fourth division of our course, we find before us an open field, freed in a great measure from the technicalities of science, and presenting a smooth and delightful path. Hitherto, we have been clearing our way through difficulties, and overcoming obstacles; first, we were obliged to learn to analyze plants according to the strict rules of botanical science; next to examine the organs of plants, anatomically and physiologically; we then investigated the principles of classification, as exhibited both in the natural and artificial methods, and followed the arrangements of plants as presented in these different methods.

The language of Botany is now familiar to the diligent student, who can enjoy the pleasant reflection, that by his own industry and application, he has elevated his mind to that state, in which it may, with little further effort, enjoy the pleasant views of the vegetable kingdom which now present themselves. Thus, the traveller, having toiled to gain some acclivity, looks complacently around, enjoying the beautiful view before him in proportion to the efforts made to attain it.

We will now suppose the dreary season of winter yielding to the gentle influences of spring, and organized nature awakening to new life and beauty ;-for animals, no less than plants, seem vivified and quickened by the returning warmth of this delightful season. How many wandering through life," with brute, unconscious gaze," have never made the inquiry, "what causes Spring?" With the greater part of mankind the ordinary phenomena of nature excite no interest; it is only when something unexpected occurs, that they think, either of first or second causes. But it should be the main object of education to teach youth to reflect, to seek the connexion between cause and effect; and especially, to look through second causes to the Great Being who is the First Cause of all-" himself uncaused." But to return to the question, "what causes Spring?" or to state it in another form, by what means does the Almighty produce the changes which this season presents? To answer this, we must refer to astronomical geography, which, pointing out the course of the sun, shows us, that having journeyed to his utmost southern boundary, he returns, crosses the equator, and with rapid strides advances towards the northern hemisphere, beaming more directly upon us, and increasing the temperature of the atmosphere; to chemistry we owe our knowledge of the effects of caloric on bodies; physiological botany shows us the sap or vegetable blood expanding by the influence of caloric, and every exhaling and inhaling organ of the plant commencing operations under the same powerful influThe earth, released from the icy bonds of frost, turns kindly to the mute, but living children of her bosom, and imparts the maternal nourishment, which, rushing through every fibre of the vegetable being, invigorates it with health and strength.

ence.

Remarks introductory to the fourth part-What causes spring?