Africa into the Delta of the Nile. So the laboratory will divine a process that shall reduce the refractory elements of nutrition in our hills and valleys, and accomplish in days what nature, unassisted, demands ages of travail to do. We should welcome everywhere assistance and should not be penny wise in our efforts. I have changed my mind about the Agricultural Department at Washington. It has been crude in its management and been wild in its efforts, but has raised itself above being the "pumpkin seed" department as it is so often called. The facts it is collecting, the experiments it is making, the seed it is distributing-much of it trash it may be-all have returned ten-fold what has been expended upon it. So with the Agricultural Colleges. They have been. scoffed at, and at times it almost seemed as though they would be "whistled down the wind," but time will demonstrate their utility in collecting and expounding, and experimenting with scientific facts. Any fact or any new mineral, or any new seed that shall add one bushel of wheat to the acre, will be worth $25,000,000 annually to the United States; or two bushels of corn to the acre will be worth $60,000,000. I hazard nothing in saying that twice that amount should be credited to this aggregated effort for scientific agriculture, and if that be so, what a senseless clamor this cry that too much science spoils the farmer. It is science that will save him, and it is intelligence that will continue to make his calling respectable and profitable. What we want above all things is that our educated young men shall take hold of this business. Chemistry is all well enough, but applied chemistry is better. Science is useless unless it is applied, and we must have the education properly to apply it, the intelligence to use, and the foresight to utilize.

IRRIGATION IN COLORADO.

BY L. G. CARPENTER.

(Read at Monroe Institute.)

It may be stated as a general truth that ordinary agriculture cannot be cal ried on successfully where the average rainfall is less than twenty inches annually. Indeed, so far as the United States is concerned, twenty-five inches may be taken as the lower limit. The last census shows that 95% of all cereals and 99% of the corn grown were raised in regions whose rainfall exceeded twenty tive inches. The average fall cannot establish a definite limit, for two places having the same precipitation may vary greatly in agricultural capabilities, according to the distribution and variability of the rainfall. If the fall be principally during the growing season, a correspondingly less amount will suffice. At least fifteen inches seems to be necessary during this season. Only 2% of the cereals of the United States are raised in regions where the rainfall during the growing season is less than 15 inches, and most, if not all, of this 2% is raised by irrigation.

As the rainfall of any year may depart from the average fall by a considerable amount the question of variability becomes of importance. It is better for the prosperity of a county to have sure returns than large ones.

It is evident that if the average rainfall is much above the necessary amount the variation may be comparatively great, and yet not seriously endanger the crops. If, however, the rainfall is near the limit, a lack of a few inches may mean a total loss of crops. Thus at Lansing the rainfall in some years has

been 8 inches below the average, but, with an average rainfall of 32 inches, this means only a dry year. A deficiency of like amount in Central or Western Kansas, for example, would mean utter failure of crops. In such localities, in order to remove agriculture from a precarious occupation, it becomes a matter of prudence more or less necessary to supply water artifically as a matter of insurance. Where the rainfall is still less irrigation becomes a matter of necessity in all years.

We in the eastern part of the Union, having sufficient water furnished by nature's showers, have our attention lit.le called to the necessity of irrigation in other sections, and consequently think little of its extent.

In a large part of the United States the rainfall is less than 20 inches, and in all this vast region, nearly a third of the Union, agriculture cannot be successfully carried on unless water is furnished by artificial means. In some places in this region, owing to favorable local conditions, crops may be raised without irrigation, but these are very limited areas. Irrigation is rapidly being extended in this region wherever water is obtainable. A large part of the area embraced in the plains of Colorado and Kansas our school geographies used to speak of as the Great American Desert. In their natural state these plains are covered with a nutritious herbage, forming the subsistence of the immense herds of western cattle, but so scanty that from 15 to 25 acres are required to support one steer. But in natural fertility these lands are exceeded by none in the Union. They are a desert because of lack of water. When water is supplied crops are raised of which, both in quality and quantity, any section in the Union may be proud.

Of the State of Colorado, whose area is 104,500 square miles, nearly twice that of Michigan, nearly two-fifths lies east of the mountains, in the great plains, at an elevation of from 3,000 to 6,000 feet. The rainfall over these plains probably averages from 12 to 15 inches. At Denver it varies from 9 to 20 inches, averaging 15 inches; at Cheyenne, from 5 to 14, averaging 10.

Irrigation was brought into the State by Mexicans in their settlements in the southern part. With those who came in the gold excitement of '59, were some who had learned by experience in California that there were surer ways of getting gold than digging for it. Tradition still lingers of the fabulous prices of those times-of cabbages bringing $10 per head, and a single wagon load of potatoes netting $1100. But the cultivated portions clung to the river bottoms. The uplauds or mesa lands were believed to be worthless. But the success of the

Greeley colony, established on the plains some 30 miles from the mountains, has shown their possibilities, and has resulted in erasing the Great American Desert from our maps. Since then uplands have been considered the most valuable.

Ditch construction has rapidly increased. The cultivated land fringes the base of the mountains and tongues extend along the rivers into the plains. It is impossible to state definitely the amount under irrigation. The assessors' returns for 1883 report 416,594 acres under irrigation. These are incomplete. The various ditches in the State claim a flow of 43,546 cubic feet of water per second, which would be sufficient to irrigate 2,400,000 acres. The State Engineer estimates the amount at 1,150,000 acres.

The ultimate extent of irrigation will depend on the supply of water furnished by the rivers. Gannett estimates that there is a water supply sufficient for 5,000,000 acres, but most of the people of the state consider this too large, and look with alarm on any further demands on the streams. The streams all rise in the mountains, and derive their waters principally from the melting of the snows of the high continental divide. No tributaries that may be called such are received outside of the mountains. These streams are torrents after a shower, but dry the greater part of the year. In consequence of these conditions the streams from the mountains generally decrease by evaporation and absorption as they recede from the mountains, and in some cases entirely dis

It becomes then a matter of great importance to determine the amount of water flowing in each stream, for as land is practically unlimited there is a danger of over-taxing the supply of the stream. The later ditches in such a case must suffer, as, according to the Colorado law, ditches are given water in the order of their construction. The State Engineer has turned his attention to this question, but as yet only one river has been gauged. This was the Cache la Poudre, a branch of the South Platte. The measurements, taken from the table in his report, every fifteenth day are as follows:

Cubic feet per second.

1933.

1068.

787.5

448.1

312.5

224.6

199.9

The table makes evident the peculiar character of the stream as compared with those of Michigan, and shows plainly the effect of the sun upon the snows in the mountains. Small in winter, the stream gradually and then rapidly increases in size as the strength of the sun becomes greater, then falls off as rapidly when the greatest intensity is past. In the more detailed records shown me at the office a daily tide was also observable.

The monthly mean rate in cubic feet per second is, in

March......

April.

May.

June...

This is equivalent to a discharge of 13 inches from the whole watershed. With the present duty of water, a cubic foot per second being sufficient for 55 acres, it is not probable irrigation can be very greatly extended. But it is likely that in the future, with accumulated experience, water will be used more conomically. But because of the dryness and rarity of the air, and in conse

quence, great evaporation, the duty can not become as great as in some other countries.

The old settlers believe that the rainfall of the plains is increasing. The Great Salt Lake, of Utah, has certainly raised ten feet since the Mormons first entered the territory. The records, however, do not clearly show any increase, though some in Kansas seem to indicate it. If this should prove true, still more of the plains would become a productive farming country.

In consequence of the magnitude of the system and its vital importance to the State, a system of laws has grown up designed both to encourage the outlay of capital and to protect users of water. It is manifest that those who control the water have the agriculture of the State at their mercy if uncontrolled.

The constitution declares every stream not before appropriated to be the property of the public and dedicates it to the use of the people of the State. The right to divert unappropriated waters for beneficial purposes shall never be denied. In case of scarcity of water the needs of agriculture have precedence over those of manufacturing and are second only to domestic necessities. Right of way may be condemned for ditch purposes, but no owner is forced to have two ditches through his land if one will suffice.

Old ditches may be enlarged and used by new companies by paying a proper share of their cost.

The law intends to prevent waste of water. Ditch owners are liable to action brought in the name of the people for waste caused by defective embankments, or for running water in excess. Waste waters must be returned to the

stream.

In order to protect the users of water from the caprice of ditch companies, the law provides that if a person has been purchasing water continuously he shall have the right to continue to purchase at the rates of the preceding year. The county commissioners have power to fix rates at which water shall be sold, but the provision seems to be practically worthless since it does not prevent any contract being made between owners and users of water.

The waters of any ditch are to be divided pro rata among the users according to their share, but ditches are entitled to water in the order of their priority.

The State is divided into twenty-six districts, in each of which is a water commissioner, appointed by the governor. It is his duty in times of scarcity to divide the waters of the river among the ditches, according to their priority, which is determined by the court. Each ditch must maintain a head-gate, and this the commissioner sets at the height necessary to give the ditch the amount it is entitled to.

To illustrate the effect of priorities, the following portion of the records of the priorities from Cache la Poudre River is given :

Thus, if the river were running only 300 cubic feet per second, and the previous ditches required their full amount, the Eaton ditch would receive 29.10 cubic feet and the Larimer and Weld only 3 per second. If there were 1,00 feet per second in the river the Eaton ditch would be entitled to its full amount, while the Larimer could receive only 94.66 cubic feet. Only in case there were more than 2653 feet would the Larimer ditch be entitled to any on its last enlargement.

To supply the water requisite, many ditches are necessary, and in speaking of ditches it is well for us to remember that any excavation carrying water is called a ditch in Colorado, regardless of its size. The amount of water required for irrigation is very great, far exceeding the quantity one unused to such methods would suppose, and consequently the amount needed to be supplied is great. Three inches of water will penetrate the soil only about one foot, and the ordinary estimate is the amount required to cover the whole field one foot deep. Farmers generally combine to build a ditch if a local one is to be constructed. The ditch must begin up stream at a point higher than the land to be irrigated. But in many cases the ditches are built by capitalists, and water is sold or rented by them to farmers. In such a case it is an object to have as much land under it, that is, land that can be irrigated from it, as possible, and to go the least distance, for thus expense of construction and loss by leakage are prevented. Hence the water is usually taken from the stream near the mountains or inside the foothills, issuing sometimes by long and expensive tunnels. With just sufficient fall to give the necessary velocity, it is soon far above the more rapidly descending stream. The velocity must not be so great as to wear down the banks. The ditches then follow the contours. For small ditches embankments are sometimes raised in places.

Creeks or depressions are crossed by fluming. A notable instance, illustrated above, is where the High Line Ditch, after issuing from Platte Canyon by a tunnel 625 feet long, crosses Plum Creek at Acequia. The ditch crosses Plum Creek by a flume which is 36 feet wide, 7 feet deep, and nearly a thousand feet long. If any land to be irrigated is surrounded by a depression, water must be brought by fluming, which is very expensive. A portion of the