these wheels there are fixed upon the axles two projecting spokes or levers, which revolve with the axle, and which take the position of two opposite spokes of the wheel. These may be occasionally attached to the wheel or detached from it; so that they are capable of compelling the wheels to turn with the axle, or leaving the axle free to turn independently of the wheel, or the wheel independent of the axle, at the pleasure of the conductor. It is by these levers that the engine is made to propel either or both of the wheels. If both pairs of spokes are thrown into connexion with the wheels, the crank shaft or axle will cause both wheels to turn with it, and in that case the operation of the carriage is precisely the same as those of the locomotives already described upon the Liverpool and Manchester line; but this is rarely found to be necessary, since the adhesion of one wheel with the road is generally sufficient to propel the carriage, and consequently only one pair of these fixed levers are used, and the carriage propelled by only one of the two hind wheels. The fore wheels of the carriage turn upon a pivot similar to those of a four-wheeled coach. The position of these wheels is changed at pleasure by a pinion and circular rack, which is moved by the conductor, and in this manner the carriage is guided with precision and facility.

The force of traction necessary to propel a carriage upon common roads must vary with the variable quality of the road, and consequently the propelling power, or the pressure upon the pistons of the engine, must be susceptible of a corresponding variation; but a still greater variation becomes necessary from the undulations and hills which are upon all ordinary roads. This necessary change in the intensity of the impelling power is obtained by restraining the steam in the boiler by the throttle-valve, as already described in the locomotive engines on the railroad. This principle, however, is carried much further in the present case. The steam in the boiler may be at a pressure of from 100 to 200 lbs. on the square inch; while the steam on the working piston may not exceed 30 or 40 lbs. on the inch. Thus an immense increase of power is always at the command of the conductor;

he is enabled to lay on power sufficient to meet the exigency of the occasion.

The two difficulties which have been always apprehended in the practical working of steam-carriages upon common roads are, first, the command of sufficient power for hills and rough pieces of road; and, secondly, the apprehended insufficiency of the adhesion of the wheels with the road to propel the carriage. The former of these difficulties has been met by allowing steam of very great pressure to be constantly maintained in the boiler with perfect safety. As to the second, all experiments tend to show that there is no ground for the supposition that the adhesion of the wheels is in any case insufficient for the purposes of propulsion. Mr. Gurney states, that he has succeeded in driving carriages thus propelled, up considerable hills on the turnpike roads about London. He made a journey to Barnet with only one wheel attached to the axle, which was found sufficient to propel the carriage up all hills upon that road. The same carriage, with only one propelling wheel, also went to Bath, and surmounted all the hills between Cranford Bridge and Bath, going and returning.

A double stroke of the piston produces one revolution of the propelling wheels, and causes the carriage to move through a space equal to the circumference of those wheels. It will therefore be obvious, that the greater the diameter of the wheels, the better adapted the carriage is for speed; and, on the other hand, wheels of smaller diameter are better adapted for power. In fact, the propelling power of an engine on the wheels will be in the inverse proportion of their diameter. In carriages designed to carry great weights at a moderate speed, smaller wheels will be used; while in those intended for the transport of passengers at considerable velocities, wheels of at least 5 feet diameter are most advantageous.

(205.) Among the numerous popular prejudices to which this new invention has given rise, one of the most mischievous in its effects and most glaring in its falsehood, is the notion that carriages thus propelled are more injurious to roads than carriages drawn by horses. This error has been successfully exposed in the evidence taken before the committee of the

House of Commons upon steam carriages. It is there demonstrated, not only that carriages thus propelled do not wear a turnpike road more rapidly than those drawn by horses, but that, on the other hand, the wear by the feet of horses is far more rapid and destructive than any which could be produced by the wheels of carriages. Steam carriages admit of having the tires of the wheels broad, so as to act upon the road more in the manner of rollers, and thereby to give consistency and firmness to the material of which the road is composed. The driving wheels being proved not to slip upon the road, do not produce any effects more injurious than the ordinary rolling wheels; consequently the wear occasioned by a steam carriage upon a road, is not more than that produced by a carriage drawn by horses, of an equivalent weight and the same or equal tires; but the wear produced by the pounding and digging of horses' feet in draught is many times greater than that produced by the wear of any carriage. Those who still have doubts upon this subject, if there be any such persons, will be fully satisfied by referring to the evidence which accompanies the report of the committee of the House of Commons, printed in October, 1831.

The weight of machinery necessary for steam carriages is sometimes urged as an objection to their practical utility. Mr. Gurney states, that, by successive improvements in the details of the machinery, the weight of his carriages, without losing any of the propelling power, may be reduced to 35 cwt., exclusive of the load, and fuel and water: but thinks that it is possible to reduce the weight still further.

A steam carriage constructed by Mr. Gurney, weighing 35 cwt., working for 8 hours, is found, according to his statement, to do the work of about 30 horses. He calculates that the weight of his propelling carriage, which would be capable of drawing 18 persons, would be equal to the weight of 4 horses; and the carriage in which these persons would be drawn would have the same weight as a common stage coach capable of carrying the same number of persons. Thus the weight of the whole-the propelling carriage and the carriage for passengers taken together would be the same

with the weight of a common stage coach, with 4 horses inclusive.

There are two methods of applying locomotives upon common roads to the transport of passengers or goods; the one is by causing the locomotive to carry, and the other to draw the load; and different projectors have adopted the one and the other method. Each is attended with its advantages and disadvantages. If the same carriage transport the engine and the load, the weight of the whole will be less in proportion to the load carried; also a greater pressure may be produced on the wheels by which the load is propelled. It is also thought that a greater facility in turning and guiding the vehicle, greater safety in descending the hills, and a saving in the original cost, will be obtained. On the other hand, when the passengers are placed in the same carriage with the engine, they are necessarily more exposed to the noise of the machinery and to the heat of the boiler and furnace. The danger of explosion is so slight, that, perhaps, it scarcely deserves to be mentioned; but still the apprehension of danger on the part of the passengers, even though groundless, should not be disregarded. This apprehension will be obviously removed or diminished by transferring the passengers into a carriage separate from the engine; but the greatest advantage of keeping the engine separate from the passengers is the facility which it affords of changing one engine for another in case of accident or derangement on the road, in the same manner as horses are changed at the different stages: or, such an accident occur in a place where a new engine cannot be procured, the load of passengers may be carried forward by horses, until it is brought to some station where a locomotive may be obtained. There is also an advantage arising from the circumstance, that when the engines are under repair, or in process of cleaning, the carriages for passengers are not necessarily idle. Thus the same number of carriages for passengers will not be required when the engine is used to draw as when it is used to carry.

if

In case of a very powerful engine being used to carry great loads, it would be quite impracticable to place the engine

and loads on four wheels, the pressure being such as no turnpike road could bear. In this case it would be indispensably necessary to place a part of the load at least upon separate carriages to be drawn by the engine.

In the comparison of carriages propelled by steam with carriages drawn by horses, there is no respect in which the advantage of the former is so apparent as the safety afforded to the passenger. passenger. Steam Steam power is under the most perfect control, and a carriage thus propelled is capable of being guided with the most admirable precision. It is also capable of being stopped almost suddenly, whatever be its speed: it is capable of being turned within a space considerably less than that which would be necessary for four-horse coaches. In turning sharp corners, there is no danger, with the most ordinary care on the part of the conductor. On the other hand, horse power, as is well known, is under very imperfect control, especially when horses are used adapted to that speed which at present is generally considered necessary for the purposes of travelling. "The danger of being run away with and overturned," says Mr. Farey, in his evidence before the House of Commons, "is greatly diminished in a steam coach. It is very difficult to control four such horses as can draw a heavy stage coach ten miles an hour, in case they are frightened or choose to run away; and, for such quick travelling, they must be kept in that state of courage that they are always inclined to run away, particularly down hill, and at sharp turns in the road. Steam power has very little corresponding danger, being perfectly controllable, and capable of having its power reversed, to retard in going down hill. It must be carelessness that would occasion the overturning of a steam carriage. The chance of breaking down has been hitherto considerable, but it will not be more than in stage coaches when the work is truly proportioned and properly executed. The risk from explosion of the boiler is the only new cause of danger, and that I consider not equivalent to the danger from horses."

That the risk of accident from explosion is extremely slight, may be proved by the fact that the railway between Liverpool and Manchester has now been in operation for about ten