his country in arms, was arrested upon suspicion during the reign of terror, and sent to the scaffold, July 23, 1794, leaving Josephine in distress. Her efforts to procure the release of her husband had caused her own imprisonment; and her two children were reduced to such extremities that Eugène entered a carpenter's shop as an apprentice. After the 9th Thermidor she was liberated through Mme. Tallien's influence, and became an ornament of the new society which was now forming. At Barras' receptions she met Bonaparte, then an obscure officer. He fell desperately in love with her, although he was 6 years her junior, and married her, March 9, 1796. Twelve days later he was appointed to the chief command of the French army in Italy. He wrote often to his wife during his campaigns, and in June, 1797, had her brought by his aide-de-camp Junot to Milan. She shared all the honors that were bestowed upon her husband either by the people or the directorial government, and was with great difficulty prevented from accompanying him to Egypt. During their separation certain personal enemies found means to make Bonaparte suspect his wife's fidelity, and he even resolved upon suing for a divorce on his return; but a single interview with Josephine revived all his passionate affection. After the 18th Brumaire she removed with Bonaparte to the Luxembourg, and afterward to the Tuileries; and while he pursued his campaigns she attracted to her court the distinguished men of the time of all political opinions, and by her affable disposition, generosity, and captivating manners, won universal respect and affection. She employed herself in behalf of the royalists, procuring the erasure of many names from the list of émigrés, and even saving the lives of those who conspired against the first consul. Her fondness for extravagant expenditure, far from diminishing her popularity, increased it, as it contributed to revive commerce, industry, and the arts; so that when Napoleon assumed the imperial title, the French nation hailed with enthusiastic applause the elevation of the "good Josephine." She was solemnly crowned, in Paris, on Dec. 2, 1804, But her happiness was soon marred by sad forebodings; she had no children by her imperial husband, and in the eyes of this great politician a direct heir was essential to the preservation of his power. After many struggles between his love and his ambition, Napoleon, partly by entreaties, partly by using his sovereign authority, prevailed upon his wife to consent to a divorce. The formal act of application was performed, with apparent sadness on his part, and dignified resignation on hers, Dec. 15, 1809, in presence of the arch chancellor and members of the imperial family. The divorce having been declared on the following day, evidences of national sympathy for the fallen empress showed that she was far from having lost any thing of her power over the French people, while her behavior commanded the admiration of even foreign princes. Her own enthusiastic attach

ment to Napoleon remained unimpaired; and she would have been ready to follow him in his exile, when in his turn he fell from his throne, but their respective situations did not allow such a step. The esteem in which she was held by the allied sovereigns protected her during the disasters of 1814; she was several times visited at Malmaison by the emperor Alexander and the king of Prussia. But her health was now failing; and the anxieties to which she was a prey hastened her death, which was caused by an aggravated inflammation of the throat. Her remains were deposited in the church of Ruel, where a monument was erected in her honor. A statue of her was also inaugurated in 1859 at Fort de France, Martinique. The most important events in the life of this popular princess are faithfully narrated in Thiers' "History of the Consulate and the Empire," while her whole career has been chronicled by Joseph Aubenas in his recent Histoire de l'impératrice Joséphine (2 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1859). See also Lettres de Napoléon à Joséphine pendant la campagne d'Italie, le consulat et l'empire (Paris, 1827); and Lettres de Joséphine à Napoleon et à sa fille (Paris, 1833). The Mémoires de Mlle. Lenormand sur Joséphine have little value; those of Mme. Avrillon (2 vols., Paris, 1831) deserve more credit.

JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS, a Jewish historian, born in Jerusalem in A. D. 37, died about 100. His father belonged to the highest sacerdotal family, and his mother was descended from the Asmonean princes. He received a superior education, was often consulted even from his 15th year by eminent men on recondite questions of the Jewish law, and acquired an extensive acquaintance with Greek literature. He studied with great care the doctrines of the 8 Jewish sects, and passed 3 years in the desert with the ascetic Essenes, after which he remained by creed as by birth a Pharisee. At the age of 26 he was sent to Rome to plead the cause of some Jewish priests arrested by the procurator Felix, and, escaping from a shipwreck on his way, was introduced to Poppæa, the wife of Nero, and not only effected the liberation of his friends, but_received many presents from the empress. Returning to Jerusalem, he attempted to dissuade the Jews from the revolt on which they were bent, but failing in his efforts he joined the war party, though, knowing well the resources of Rome, he was convinced that the struggle could only end in the ruin of his country. He was appointed one of the generals and deputed to defend the province of Galilee, and he made vigorous and for a time successful preparations against the Romans, though vehemently opposed by a strong party in the council at Jerusalem led by John of Giscala. On the approach of Vespasian in 67 he threw himself into Jotapata, the strongest of the Galilean cities, where he maintained a desperate resistance for 47 days. Escaping from the massacre which succeeded its fall, he took refuge in a cave, but was betrayed to the

Romans. He thereupon assumed the character of a prophet, and, professing to derive his knowledge from the sacred books of the Jews, announced to Vespasian that the Roman empire should one day be his and his son's. Confidence in him was increased by the discovery from prisoners that he had foretold the exact number of days that the siege of Jotapata should last. He was not, however, released from bonds till, Vespasian having become emperor, Titus succeeded to the control of the Jewish war. He was present at the siege of Jerusalem, suspected as a traitor by both Jews and Romans, and accompanied Titus on his return to Rome, where he passed the remainder of his life in literary pursuits. He was presented with the freedom of the city, an annual pension, and a house which had formerly been an imperial residence. He was 3 times married, and was divorced from his first 2 wives. Pride in the ancient glories of his nation, awe of the greatness and power of Rome, personal vanity, and a tendency to unbounded flattery of the Flavian family, appear with equal prominence in his writings. In a much disputed passage he alludes to Christ as something more than man, to his miracles, Messiahship, death, and resurrection in accordance with the prophecies; but there is no evidence that he was a Christian. His principal works are: a "History of the Jewish War," written in Hebrew, translated by himself into Greek, and published about 75; and a treatise on "Jewish Antiquities," completed about 93. The Hebrew original of neither of them is extant. The former extends from 170 B. C. to the fatal war which terminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, of which it gives a detailed narrative; and the latter includes the period from the creation to A. D. 66, and manifests a desire to conciliate heathen readers. He also wrote his own biography, and a treatise against Apion on the antiquity of the Jewish nation. An account of the martyrdom of Eleazer, and of 7 youths and their mother, entitled Eis MakkaẞaLovs, has been ascribed to him, but is of doubtful genuineness. The best editions of his works are by Hudson (Oxford, 1720), Havercamp (Amsterdam, 1726), and Dindorf, in Didot's Bibliotheca Græca (Paris, 1845). The principal_English translations are by Lodge (1602), L'Estrange (1702), Whiston (1737), and Dr. Robert Traill, who died, leaving finished only "The Jewish War," which was edited by Isaac Taylor (2 vols., London, 1847.)

JOSHUA, the successor of Moses in the command of the Israelites, born about 1537, died about 1427 B. C. He was the son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim. He gained the victory over the Amalekites at Rephidim, accompanied Moses to Mt. Sinai, was deputed with 11 others to explore the land of Canaan, was appointed by Moses with the divine sanction to the command of the Israelites, led them into the promised land, and divided the country among the tribes. He governed Israel during 25 years, and his history is contained in the canonical book of

Joshua, of which he has usually been regarded as the author, though some late critics suppose it to have been written either in the time of David, or near the Babylonian exile. There is a Samaritan book of Joshua (published in Arabic and Latin by Juynboll, Leyden, 1848), which is a chronicle of events from the death of Moses to the time of Alexander Severus.

JOSIAH, the 17th king of Judah, son of King Amon, born in 647, succeeded to the throne in 639, died in 609 B. C. Unlike his immediate predecessors, he did right in the sight of the Lord, and undertook to free the land from idolatry, though the groves and altars consecrated to idol worship were favored by men of rank and influence in the kingdom. Having accomplished this purpose in the 18th year of his reign, he proceeded to repair and adorn the neglected temple of the Lord. In the sanctuary there was found a volume containing the books of Moses, which seems to have been regarded as the original copy of the Mosaic law. Soon after this he ordered the celebration of the passover with a care and magnificence unexampled from the time of the judges. Being tributary to the Babylonian empire, he resisted the passage through his territories of the Egyptian king Pharaoh-necho, on an expedition against the Chaldeans, and fell in the battle of Megiddo between the Hebrew and Egyptian forces.

JÓSIKA, MIKLÓs, baron, a Hungarian novelist, born in Torda, Transylvania, in 1796. He studied law, and in 1812 entered the Austrian army, which he left in 1818 with the rank of captain of cavalry. Having married, he lived alternately on his estates in Transylvania and in Pesth, chiefly engaged in literary pursuits, but also active as a member of the liberal opposition party of his country. After the reunion of Transylvania with Hungary in the spring of 1848, he became a member of the upper house of the Hungarian diet, was a decided supporter of Kossuth, and on the resignation of the Batthyányi ministry was appointed member of the committee of defence. He followed the revolutionary government to Debreczin, and after its overthrow effected his escape to Brussels, where he still resides, continuing his activity as an author. Condemned to death in his absence, he was hanged in effigy in Pesth in 1851. Jósika is one of the most popular and prolific writers of his country; among his most remarkable works are the historical novels Abafi (1836, 3d ed. 1851), Az utolsó Báthori ("The Last of the Báthoris"), A Csehek Magyarországban (“The Bohemians in Hungary"), Zrinyi a Költö (“Zrinyi the Poet"), Jósika István ("Stephen Jósika"), and Eszter ("Esther," 1853); all translated into German, partly by Klein, partly by the author's second wife Julia Podmaniczky, whom he married in 1847. His more recent publications, written in exile, have appeared anonymously.

JOST, ISAAK MARCUS, a German author of Jewish birth, born in Bernburg in 1793. He studied at Göttingen and Berlin, was appointed teacher in the latter city in 1816, and in 1835

principal teacher of the Jewish Realschule in Frankfort-on-the-Main, which position he still holds. He has written numerous historical, linguistic, and other works. His best known publications are: Geschichte der Israeliten (9 vols., Berlin, 1820-'28); Allgemeine Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (2 vols., 1832); Neuere Geschichte der Israeliten (3 vols., 1846-'7), containing the history of the Jews since 1815; and Geschichte des Judenthums (3 vols., Leipsic, 1857-'9). He has translated the Mishna into German (6 vols., 1832), and in 1839-'51 edited the Israelitische Annalen (Frankfort).

JOTUNS, JOTNEN, OR JETTEN, in Scandinavian mythology, giants, representing the rude powers of nature, and in some respects corresponding to the Titans of the Greeks. They were fabled to inhabit Niflheim, the region of darkness, cold, and ice, and to wage continual war with the Asen, or gods who symbolized the more genial elements, such as light, warmth, and vegetation. From Ymer, first of the Jotuns, the world was made. The ice in Niflheim having been melted by the sun rays from Muspelheim (the land of light and heat), the thaw gave birth to the first Jotun Ymer, and to the cow Ardumbla, which by licking the salt rocks generated the first man Bure. From himself Ymer begot the giant race of the Hrymthussen, but was shortly after slain by Odin, Wila, and We, Bure's grandsons. His blood became the sea, his flesh the earth, his bones the rocks and mountains, his skull the heavens, his brain the clouds, and his eyebrows the ramparts defending Midgard, the home of men. In a historical point of view the Jotuns appear to have been the aboriginal inhabitants of the north of Europe, who long maintained a contest with a later wave of immigration from the East in Odin and his companions. According to northern fable, the Jotuns were mighty giants controlling the ruder forms of nature, and inhabiting caves. Their sons were mighty rivers and floods, and their daughters clear, rippling brooks, often so beautiful as to win the love of the highest among the gods. Regarding the Jotuns in the light of men, they were probably the same race as the Thussen or Thursen, and belonged to the nation of the Finns.

JOUFFROY, THÉODORE SIMON, a French philosopher, the greatest moralist of the eclectic school, born in the hamlet of Les Pontets, Doubs, July 6, 1796, died in Paris, Feb. 4, 1842. After attending the college of Nozeroy, he was confided in 1807 to the care of his uncle, an ecclesiastic and professor in the college of Pontarlier, with whom he remained 4 years, and was then transferred to the college of Dijon. Rollin was the first author in whom he took delight, and history continued through his life to be a constant and favorite study. He had already attempted a tragedy, when in 1814 he was selected as a brilliant pupil for admission into the normal school. Theological meditations had led him to the highest problems, and he describes himself as at this time uncertain

about the enigma of human destiny, yet detesting incredulity, and resolute to solve the question by the light of reason, since he had lost that of faith. He was thus in a condition to be strongly impressed by the youngest of his masters, Victor Cousin, whose eloquent lectures decisively directed his vocation to philosophy. In 1817 he became pupil-assistant in the philosophical department of the normal school, at the same time lecturing in the Bourbon college, and fulfilled both tasks till his health obliged him to resign the latter in 1820. By the suppression of the normal school in 1822, he was deprived of public employment for 5 years, and in the interval he delivered a private course of lectures, attended by the élite of the young men of the capital; published philosophical articles in the Globe and other journals and reviews, one of which, entitled Comment les dogmes finissent, added much to his reputation; translated the "Moral Philosophy" of Dugald Stewart (Paris, 1826), to which he furnished an elaborate preface; and began his translation of the complete works of Thomas Reid (6 vols., Paris, 1828-35), to which he added several of the lectures of Royer-Collard, and a preface in which he undertook a complete examination of the Scotch philosophy. In 1828 he was made assistant professor of ancient philosophy in the faculty of letters of Paris, and, interested rather in philosophy than its history, treated of the faculties of the soul in a course of lectures on the first "Alcibiades" of Plato; and in 1830 became adjunct professor of the history of modern philosophy, and delivered his Cours du droit naturel (2 vols., 1835; a 3d vol. was edited after his death by Damiron, 1842), his most eloquent work, which treats at once of ethics, psychology, and theodicy. In 1831 he was elected to the chamber of deputies, and in 1833 was appointed to the chair of Greek literature and philosophy in the college of France, and elected to the academy of the moral and political sciences. In 1835 he was obliged to abandon his various duties to seek a restoration of his health in Italy, and on his return in 1838 resigned his professorship in the college of France to succeed Laromiguière as librarian of the university. His feeble voice and calm and methodical mind alike unfitted him to excel in the chamber of deputies, though from his abilities and personal character he always commanded attention. In 1840 he was called into the royal council of public instruction, and, being appointed to draw up the address of the new ministry, maintained that its administration should be distinguished by some broad difference from that which had preceded it. Finding himself in a minority, his disappointment had a fatal influence on his already broken health. He languished till his death, in serenity and firmness of mind, seeking complete solitude; only his wife and children were allowed to approach him, the blinds of his windows were closed and the light excluded, and he remained to the last as if in calm and deep meditation. As a metaphysician, Jouffroy

adopted and hardly went beyond the psychological standpoint of the Scotch school. One of his most original theories is his distinction between the psychological and the physiological life, or the personal and impersonal life, different from that ordinarily made between the soul and body. The former is an extraordinary original power, directing our natural capacities, and moulding our whole existence to the intelligent accomplishment of its existence; the latter is human nature as subjected to its necessary laws and impulses. Every faculty that we possess is regarded as being developed either, on the one hand, according to the necessary laws of human nature, or, on the other hand, under the sway and direction of our personal power. These faculties he thus classifies the personal faculty, imperfectly designated by the name of liberty or will; the primitive inclinations, or the aggregate of natural instincts or tendencies, prior to all experience; the locomotive faculty; the expressive faculty; sensibility; and the intellectual faculties. As a moralist, he has given a peculiar explanation of good and evil. Every thing is good in proportion as it aids in the fulfilment of our destiny. The problem of human destiny therefore lies at the foundation of morality. There can be no à priori judgment as to the moral quality of actions, since that is relative to the agent, depending on the influence they may have on the destiny for which he was created. Good, in the case of any particular being, is the fulfilment of its own specific destiny; good, in itself, is the fulfilment of the destiny of all beings; and an interruption in the accomplishment of destiny constitutes evil. The style of Jouffroy is remarkably clear, forcible, and elegant, and his writings have great literary merit irrespective of their philosophical contents. His principal works, not already mentioned, are the Mélanges philosophiques (1833), containing 28 essays, most of which had before appeared in periodicals; the Nouveaux mélanges philosophiques, edited by Damiron (1842); and the Cours d'esthétique, also edited by Damiron (1843). His Cours du droit naturel has been translated into English under the title of an "Introduction to Ethics," by W. H. Channing, and a selection from his essays under that of "Philosophical Miscellanies," by G. Ripley, in Ripley's Specimens of Foreign Literature" (Boston, 1838-'40).

JOURDAN, JEAN BAPTISTE, Count, a French general, born in Limoges, April 29, 1762, died in Paris, Nov. 23, 1833. He enlisted in the army when scarcely 16 years old, served 5 years in America under Count d'Estaing, and was discharged in 1784. He then became a merchant's clerk, and had married a milliner and adopted her business when the revolution broke out. He became a lieutenant of the national guards, and was in 1791 elected to command a battalion of volunteers; he joined the army of the north, distinguished himself in Belgium under Dumouriez, was appointed brigadier-general in 1793, and 4 months later promoted to

the rank of general of division. Wounded at the battle of Hondschoote, he had scarcely recovered when he was placed in command of the army of the north. He drove the imperial troops from their position at Wattignies, Oct. 16, 1793, and was called to Paris to consult with the committee of public safety; but being unexpectedly placed on the retired list, he returned to his shop at Limoges. But his services could not well be dispensed with, and on April 15, 1794, he received the command of the army of Moselle. A few days later he was transferred to that of Sambre-et-Meuse, with which he won (June 26) the celebrated battle of Fleurus, executed several other successful operations, and drove the Austrians beyond the Rhine. In 1795 he displayed uncommon talents in crossing that river. In 1796 he advanced into Germany, and defeated Clerfayt at Alten Kirchen; but being subsequently worsted near Würzburg by the archduke Charles, he was obliged to fall back, and resigned his command. In 1797 he was elected to the council of 500, where he procured the adoption of the law of military conscription. He was president of that body in Oct. 1799, when he resigned his legislative functions to assume the command of the army on the Danube. After a short and unsuccessful campaign, he returned to Paris, was reelected to the council of 500, refused to participate in the plans of Bonaparte for the subversion of the directorial government, and was one of the members excluded from that body on the 19th Brumaire. He nevertheless was sent by the first consul on a special mission to Piedmont, and reconciled that country to the French domination. He was appointed marshal of the empire and grand eagle of the legion of honor in 1804, but received no important command. He lived in comparative inactivity until he was appointed in 1806 governor of Naples, and became the principal adviser and friend of Joseph Bonaparte. He accompanied Joseph to Spain, with the title of major-general of the armies of his Catholic majesty; but he had, as such, neither authority nor influence, and was not answerable for the reverses of the French armies in the Peninsula from 1808 to 1813. He was treated by Napoleon with a coldness amounting to disgrace. In 1814, having assented to the deposition of Napoleon, he received a peerage from Louis XVIII. He joined Napoleon during the Hundred Days, but on his defeat at Waterloo went back to the Bourbons, was created a count, then governor of the 7th military division, and in 1819 peer of France. On the revolution of July, 1830, he held for a few days the ministry of foreign affairs, and was appointed by Louis Philippe governor of the Invalides. He was an honest man, and died poor. JOURNALISM. See NEWSPAPERS.

JOUSSOUF, or YUSUF, a French general, born either on the coast of Provence or in the island of Elba, between the years 1807 and 1810. Kidnapped, when a mere child, by corsairs, he was taken to Tunis and sold to the bey, who