brother by Dr. Burney. He early displayed much scientific ability, was elected a fellow of the royal astronomical society in 1833 and of the royal society in 1840, and established in 1841 an observatory in Bath. In 1847 he published a brief" History of the New Planets;" in 1853 an account of two inventions for the relief of persons helpless from disease or wounds, called the lifting apparatus and the surgical transferrer; and in 1855 a pamphlet recommending the training of the youth of Britain to military exercises. His house and observatory at Bath were a favorite resort of scientific students. His large property was divided by his will into 139 portions, and many of his legacies were for the benefit of scientific and charitable institutions. He bequeathed his large 11 feet telescope, made by Dollond, to the royal naval school at Greenwich, and the whole of his meteorological instruments (including a hygrometer made by Dr. Franklin) to Mr. Lowe, for his private observatory at Beeston, near Nottingham. He claimed descent from Queen Catharine Parr, of whom he left various relics to her biographer, Miss Strickland.

LAWSON, JOHN, a surveyor-general and first historian of North and South Carolina, of Scotch birth. He began his surveys in 1700, and was an intelligent observer, enterprising and circumspect, but fell a victim to the jealousy of the natives, who confounded the surveyor of their territory with those who despoiled them of it. He was captured by them during one of his explorations when in company with De Graffenried, a Swiss baron who contemplated colonization. The latter was permitted to buy himself free, but Lawson failed to propitiate their hostility and perished by the fire torture. He left one of the most valuable of the early histories of the Carolinas, of their feeble condition, their resources and aspects, and their principal aboriginal tribes. It is entitled "A New Voyage to Carolina, containing the Exact Description and Natural History of that Country, together with the Present State thereof; and a Journal of a Thousand Miles Travelled through Several Nations of Indians, giving a Particular Account of their Customs, Manners, &c." (London, 1709). The volume is a quarto of 258 pages, well illustrated with one of the best maps of the time, and with various other engravings, chiefly in natural history. It is now rare.

LAWYER. See ADVOCATE, ATTORNEY, and COUNSELLOR.

LAYARD, AUSTEN HENRY, an English traveller and archæologist, born in Paris during the temporary residence of his parents in that city, March 8, 1817. He is descended from a Huguenot family which emigrated from France after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and is said to have many points of personal resemblance to his southern ancestry. After spending a number of years in Florence, where among other things he cultivated a taste for drawing, he commenced the study of law in England, but soon abandoned that occupation to embark in a

tour of exploration in the East, to which he is said to have been incited by a speech of Daniel O'Connell. Leaving England in 1839, he traversed Albania and Roumelia; and after a brief residence in Constantinople, during which he acted as correspondent for a London newspaper, he proceeded through Asia Minor to Syria, scarcely leaving untrod one spot hallowed by tradition, or unvisited one ruin consecrated by history." Thence he went to Persia, and devoted some time to an examination of the remains of Susa, though without any important results. During this period he thoroughly mastered the Arabic language and some of the kindred dialects, and so assimilated his habits, dress, and general appearance to those of the Arabs, that he was frequently taken for one of that race. Passing through Mosul in 1842 on his return to Constantinople, he found that M. Botta, the French consul at the former place, was making excavations, under the direction of his government, in the neighboring mound of Kouyunjik; and he accordingly directed the attention of this gentleman to the great mound of Nimroud, 16 miles below Mosul, as likely to contain remains of the utmost interest to the archæologist. The distance of the place, however, and its inconvenient position, prevented M. Botta from availing himself of this suggestion, and circumstances detained Mr. Layard in Constantinople and its neighborhood for several years. He however strongly cherished the hope of exploring the Assyrian ruins around Mosul, which he had cursorily examined while passing down the Tigris in 1840; and the gratifying results of M. Botta's excavations at Khorsabad in 1843-4, regularly communicated to him by the latter, increased his anxiety to revisit the great mound of Nimroud. Efforts to interest various people in the subject proving unavailing, Sir Stratford Canning, the British ambassador in Constantinople, agreed to defray for a limited period the expense of excavations in Assyria, and Layard eagerly embraced the opportunity. Arriving in Mosul in Nov. 1845, he broke ground in the great mound of Nimroud on the 9th of that month; and from that period until April, 1847, with the exception of partial explorations at Kouyunjik, opposite Mosul, and Kalah Shergat, and occasional excursions into the adjacent regions, he prosecuted his labors assiduously at that place, bringing to light sculptures, bass-reliefs, hieroglyphics, specimens of glass and pottery, and other monuments of Assyrian civilization, which, according to the testimony of Dr. Robinson, "make us in many respects better acquainted with that powerful people than all the accounts we have heretofore possessed." His excavations were not pursued however without considerable difficulty, caused by the superstition and intractable character of his Arab workinen, and the petty persecutions of the pasha of Mosul, from which he was finally relieved by a firman from the sultan authorizing him to remove the sculptures. During the progress of the excavations, through

the interest of Sir Stratford Canning, the British museum advanced a small fund in aid of the undertaking; and in 1847 a number of cases of antiquities, including the colossal humanheaded lions and bulls and the Nimroud obelisk, which had been floated down the Tigris to Bagdad, and there placed on shipboard, were received in England, and deposited in the Assyrian transept of the British museum. In the same year Mr. Layard returned home, and, after recruiting his health, prepared for publication his "Nineveh and its Remains" (2 vols. 8vo., London, 1849), accompanied by 2 folio volumes of illustrations and a volume of inscriptions in the cuneiform character. In 1848 he returned to Constantinople as attaché to the embassy there; and in the latter part of 1849, at the invitation of the trustees of the British museum and under their direction, he resumed the excavations at Nimroud, which were carried on for about a year, after which he transferred the scene of his labors to Babylon. The excavations at this place produced no important result; but the discoveries at Nimroud, particularly the tablets containing Ninevitish records, were of great value. Returning to England, he published in 1853 the results of his second expedition, under the title of "Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, with Travels in Armenia, Kurdistan, and the Desert" (2 vols. 8vo.). Upon the retirement of Lord Palmerston from the foreign office in 1851 Mr. Layard was appointed under secretary of state for foreign affairs, and soon after entered parliament as member for Aylesbury. He declined appointments under the succeeding administrations, preferring to give his attention chiefly to questions of eastern politics, and soon attracted attention in the house of commons as a debater. In 1854 he visited the Crimea, and was subsequently instrumental in procuring the appointment of the committee of inquiry into the state of the British army before Sebastopol. He declined office under the Palmerston administration of 1855, and became a member of the "Administrative Reform Association." His motion embodying the views of this organization was rejected in the house of commons in June, 1855, by a decisive vote. At the general election of 1857 he was defeated at Aylesbury, and subsequently at Wigton, and has not since then occupied a seat in parliament. He has of late years devoted himself to the preservation of the frescoes and paintings of the early Italian masters. Of these he has made a series of elaborate drawings and tracings, a portion of which have appeared in the publications of the "Arundel Society."

LAYBACH, or LAIBACH, a town of Austria, in the duchy of Carniola, situated on the river Laybach and on the railway from Vienna to Trieste, 273 m. from the former and 40 m. from the latter city; pop. about 18,000. The town occupies both banks of the river, which is here crossed by 5 bridges. It has manufactories of linen, woollen, and silk, a large sugar refinery, and oil, paper, and cotton mills. Laybach is a

place of great antiquity, the seat of a bishop, and of the civil and military government of the province. A congress of European monarchs was held here in 1821 to regulate the affairs of Italy.

LAYNEZ, LAINEZ, or LEYNEZ, JACOBO, the second general of the society of Jesus, born in Almançario, Castile, in 1512, died Jan. 19, 1565. He received the degree of master in arts at the university of Alcala, and subsequently went to Paris with the double purpose of completing his theological studies and seeing Ignatius Loyola, the fame of whose virtues had aroused his interest. He was the second person who joined Ignatius in founding the order of Jesuits, the first having been Francis Xavier; and the constitution of the society is frequently though erroneously supposed to have been mainly of his devising. He went with Ignatius to Rome in 1537, and was appointed by the pope professor of scholastic theology. After extensive missionary labors in Italy and other parts of Europe, he was sent to Africa, and on his return was thrice present in the capacity of pope's theologian at the council of Trent, where he upheld the supremacy of the Roman pontiff in a discourse which attained a wide celebrity. He succeeded Ignatius as general of the order in 1558, and on the death of Pope Paul IV. in the following year 12 of the cardinals were in favor of raising him to the vacant throne. To avoid being elected, he withdrew from the city. He was a zealous opponent of the Calvinists, not only at the council of Trent but at the famous "colloquy of Poissy" (1561), whither he went in the suite of the legate, Cardinal Ferrara. He disputed here with Beza, but distinguished himself by moderate and pacific views, which, however, were not adopted. On his return to Rome the pope offered him a cardinal's hat, which he refused. He left the society at his death in a flourishing state, and no small part of its prosperity was owing to his prudence and good government. It has been asserted that he made several modifications in its constitution, but this is an error. Laynez left several unfinished theological works and some minor pieces. His life was written in Spanish by Ribadeneira.

LAZARISTS. See PRIESTS OF THE MISSION. LAZULITE. See LAPIS Lazuli. LAZZARI, DONATO. See BRAMANTE D'URBINO.

LAZZARONI (It. lazzaro, a leper), the lowest classes of the populace of Naples, including porters, itinerant venders of food, boatmen, beggars, and all without a fixed place of abode. The name is derived from that of the beggar Lazarus mentioned in the parable of Christ. During the middle ages lepers were obliged to wear a peculiar dress, consisting simply of short drawers, shirt, and hood, and until within a few years this costume was generally retained by the lazzaroni. At the end of the last century their number was estimated at 40,000, most of them sleeping in the open air, in archways, or in large baskets

which they carried with them. Though idle, ignorant, and vicious, they are abstemious, frugal, and, when not excited, proverbial for their good nature. They still annually elect their chief, the capo lazzaro, the election taking place in the open air, and being determined rather by clamor than by choice. The lazzaroni have frequently played an important part in political revolutions. The revolt of Masaniello was principally due to them; and during the siege of Naples by Championnet in 1799 they fought bravely, their capo Michele being afterward appointed a French colonel. In recent times the lazzaroni have generally been identified with the royal interests and conservatism; the dread of their being turned loose to pillage the city having been used as an effectual check on the middle classes. Of late they have lost many of their peculiarities; efforts have been made by government to inspire them with a love of cleanliness and order; and they are no longer recognized as a separate class, but are enrolled in different districts, and subjected to the same police regulations as other citizens.

LEA, ISAAC, LL.D., an American naturalist, born in Wilmington, Del., March 4, 1792. His ancestors followed William Penn from England, and were ministers in the society of Friends. At the age of 15 he was placed with his elder brother, a merchant in Philadelphia, but retained a fondness for natural objects. With the late Prof. Vanuxem, then a youth, he passed all his leisure time in collecting minerals, fossils, &c., and in observing the rocks of Pennsylvania. In 1815 both were elected members of the academy of natural sciences of Philadelphia, and Mr. Lea shortly after published his first paper in the "Journal of the Academy," being an account of the minerals which he had observed in the neighborhood of Philadelphia. To a collection of minerals and geological specimens made by his own exertions, those of paleontology and recent shells were added, which at the present time have grown to great magnitude; that of fresh water shells is entirely unequalled, the family of unionida alone consisting of about 8,000 specimens of both sexes, all ages and varieties, and of wide geographical distribution. In 1821 he joined the firm of his father-in-law, Matthew Carey, who was engaged in the largest publishing business in the United States. In 1827 he began a series of memoirs on new forms of fresh water and land shells, which have been continued to the present time. These were published in the "Transactions of the Philosophical Society," vols. iii. to x., in the "Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences," vols. iii. and iv., and separately under the title of "Observations on the Genus Unio," &c. (7 vols. 4to., Philadelphia, 1827). In 1832 he visited Europe, and in 1833 published "Contributions to Geology," consisting of descriptions of 228 species of tertiary fossils from Alabama, illustrated with great exactness in colors. He retired from business in 1851 with an ample fortune, and his time has since been devoted to his favorite scientific

pursuits. In 1852 he made a second visit to Europe. Recently he has published, in large folio, with colored plates, "Fossil Footmarks in the Red Sandstones of Pottsville," intended to illustrate the remarkable discovery made by himself of saurian footprints in the red sandstone 700 feet below the conglomerate of the coal formation at Pottsville, and named by him sauropus primavus. This discovery was of great interest, as it had been believed until within a few years that no "air-breathing animal" had existed even so low as the coal measures. In another memoir he described the bones and teeth of a saurian from the new red sandstones of Pennsylvania. These constituted the first bones and teeth observed in this formation in the United States, and the animal was named by him clepsysaurus Pennsylvanicus. These discoveries were followed by others which have been communicated to the academy of natural sciences. Mr. Lea has contemplated the publication of a large work on the unionida of the United States, which will be a complete monograph of the genera and species of that family. His memoirs published within the last 33 years are preparatory to this object. The importance of the extensive publications of Mr. Lea, consisting as they do almost entirely of original observations, has been acknowledged by numerous learned bodies both in Europe and America. He was elected a member of the American philosophical society in 1828, and subsequently of the zoological society of London, the Linnæan society of Bordeaux, the imperial society of natural history of Moscow, &c. In Dec. 1858, he was elected president of the academy of natural sciences of Philadelphia, over which he still presides. Among his works, beside those already mentioned, are: Description of a New Genus of the Family Melaniana" (8vo., 1851), and "Synopsis of the Family of Naiades" (3d ed. enlarged, 4to., 1852).-THOMAS GIBSON, an American botanist, brother of the preceding, born in Wilmington, Del., Dec. 14, 1785, died in Waynesville, O., Sept. 25, 1844. He was engaged in mercantile affairs until his 48d year, when he retired from business and devoted himself to botany. He left an extensive herbarium, with the synonymy and description of many new species, and an unfinished catalogue. A "Catalogue of Plants, Native and Naturalized, collected in the Vicinity of Cincinnati, O." (8vo., Philadelphia, 1849), was prepared from papers by Mr. W. S. Sullivant.

LEACH, WILLIAM ELFORD, an English naturalist, born in Plymouth in 1790, died in St. Sebastiano, Piedmont, Aug. 25, 1836. As a boy he showed the bent of his inclinations by making collections of natural objects; and with a view of devoting himself to scientific pursuits he became in 1809 a student at St. Bartholomew's hospital in London, then under the care of Dr. Abernethy. Before the completion of his medical studies he became known as an ardent student in zoology; and from Edinburgh he was called to London to fill the post of cura

tor of the natural history department of the British museum. He entered upon the discharge of his new duties with a zeal which never relaxed, and found time also to prepare papers for publication in the "Transactions" of the chief scientific societies in Europe and America. One of the first and most important of these was that on "Crustaceology" (1813), a branch of natural history to which he devoted much attention, and in which he made many important discoveries. Its leading feature was the separation of the myriopoda, arachnida, and insecta from the crustacea, all of which had been grouped by Linnæus under insecta. In this arrangement he showed his predilection for the natural system of classification, as opposed to the artificial system of Linnæus to which English naturalists were strongly attached; and his subsequent labors in this direction are considered to have produced the first movement toward the adoption of the system now in vogue in England. His other most important works were the "Zoological Miscellany," a serial commenced in 1814 after his appointment to the British museum, and completed in 1817 in 3 vols.; and the first part of the "History of the British Crustacea," of which 17 parts appeared. His severe labors finally so affected his eyesight and his general health that he was obliged to resign his curatorship, and to a great extent the pursuit of his favorite studies. In 1826 he visited southern Europe, and occupied himself at intervals in making collections of the insects in the localities where he happened to be residing. These are preserved in the Plymouth institution and by the Devon and Cornwall natural history society. He died of cholera. His love of animals was excessive, and he had a peculiar faculty for subduing the most ferocious kinds. One of the most faithful and attached companions of his walks was a wolf which he had tamed.

LEAD, a bluish gray soft metal, of specific gravity, when condensed by rolling, 11.44, otherwise 11.35; chemical symbol Pb, from Lat. plumbum; equivalent, 103.57. It is easily cut with a knife, and when rubbed on paper leaves a dark bluish gray streak. Its lustre when freshly cut is strongly metallic; but the bright surface soon tarnishes in consequence of the formation of a thin film of basic carbonate of the oxide of the metal. Lead is so ductile that it can be rolled into thin sheets, or drawn into wire; but its tenacity is feeble, a wire inch in diameter supporting only 30 lbs. It possess es flexibility in a high degree, but is deficient in elasticity. It has a perceptible peculiar odor, but no taste. It fuses at 612° F., and on cooling tends to assume octahedral crystalline forms. By repeated heating and cooling below its freezing point it is said to acquire a permanent increase of bulk. In a brasqued crucible in the high heat of a furnace, estimated at 130° Wedgwood, it volatilizes, losing of its weight in an hour. It even takes fire and burns with a bluish white light in the air at a very high temperature, forming with oxygen the oxide

known as litharge. When finely divided, the metal is even more inflammable than gunpowder, as shown by Faraday. When about melting, its surface is covered with an iridescent pellicle of oxide of lead, which soon gives place to the yellow litharge. Lead is scarcely attacked by hydrochloric acid, even concentrated and boiling; and sulphuric acid has no effect upon it unless the acid is in this condition, when it converts the metal into an insoluble sulphate. Nitric acid diluted and cold readily dissolves it. Lead forms alloys with all the metals except iron; and some of these combinations are much used in the arts. Type metal is formed of various proportions of lead and antimony, with sometimes a little tin; pewter, of lead and tin; 2 parts of lead and one of tin form the alloy used for organ pipes, and in this and other proportions it is the solder of the plumbers. Equal parts of lead and tin make the solder of the tin smiths, a very combustible alloy, which when heated to redness gives a combination of oxides of lead and tin known as polishing putty, and much used in the arts for polishing hard substances and preparing enamels. It is on the strong affinity of lead for gold and silver that the method of separating these metals from earthy admixtures and oxidizable metals is based, the lead seizing upon them when melted together, and then being made to separate from them when converted into an oxide by the process described in ASSAYING and CUPELLATION. The qualities of the metal render it ill adapted for purposes requiring strength; but being easily moulded from a fused state into any form, its cheapness and weight recommend it as the best material for small shot and musket balls, and its cast sheets when rolled thin serve as an excellent lining of cisterns, and are used for those in chemical works designed to contain sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. Lead pipe is exceedingly convenient for conveying water, being transported in coils like ropes, and when unwound for laying furnished in any desired length; it is easily bent to turn corners, cut without difficulty, and joined with great facility by soldering. If ruptured by water freezing within the pipe, the damage is limited to a small space, and is easily repaired. These advantages cause lead pipe to be very generally used, notwithstanding the evil effects often experienced by the poisonous qualities of the salts produced by the chemical action of the water and of the foreign substances carried along with it. This subject will be specially considered in the course of this article.-Little is known of the early use of lead. The metal is several times named in the Old Testament, and it is supposed that the word translated tin should have been rendered lead. Mines were worked in Britain at a very early period, Camden stating that lead was obtained from Cornwall and Cumberland before the Christian era. Under the government of the Romans the metal must have been largely produced, judging from the Roman relics found about the old mines, among which are blocks