these works Lowndes says: "Of the several early catalogues of the English stage Langbaine's only is to be implicitly relied on for its fidelity. Commentators and others have borrowed copiously from him, many of them without acknowledgment."

LANGBEIN, AUGUST FRIEDRICH ERNST, a German author, born near Dresden, Sept. 6, 1757, died in Berlin, Jan. 2, 1835. He studied law, filled various public offices, and from 1810 till his death was censor of belles-lettres publications for the Prussian government. His complete works were published in 31 vols. (Stuttgart, 1835-'7), and comprise humorous poems, tales, and novels, some of which have been very popular.

LANGDON, JOHN, an American statesman, born in Portsmouth, N. H., in 1739, died there, Sept. 18, 1819. At the outbreak of the revolutionary war, although then profitably engaged in business, he embarked in the patriotic cause, and in 1774 participated in the removal of the armament and military stores from Fort William and Mary in Portsmouth harbor, an act which imperilled his life and property. In 1775 he was a delegate to the continental congress, but resigned office in June, 1776, on becoming navy agent. In 1777, while speaker of the New Hampshire assembly, he pledged a large portion of his property for the purpose of equipping the brigade with which Stark defeated the Hessians at Bennington. Subsequently he was a member and speaker of the state legislature, a member of the continental congress, a delegate to the convention which framed the constitution of the United States, and president of New Hampshire. He was one of the first U. S. senators from New Hampshire, which office he held until 1801. In politics he was a republican, and acted with Jefferson, who upon assuming office in 1801 offered him the post of secretary of the navy, which he declined. From 1805 to 1812, with the exception of 2 years, he was governor of New Hampshire; and in 1812 he was offered by the republican congressional caucus the nomination for the office of vice-president of the United States, which, on the score of age and infirmities, he declined. The remainder of his life was passed in retirement.

LANGELAND, an island of Denmark, situated between Laaland and Fünen, in the Great Belt; length 32 m., average breadth 4 m.; area, 106 sq. m.; pop. in 1851, 17,368. The E. coast has excellent harbors where the largest vessels may at all times find anchorage. The climate is healthful, and the soil fertile. Langeland forms with Fünen a circle of the kingdom. Capital, Rudkiöbing.

LANGERON, ANDRAULT, count, a Russian general of French birth, born in Paris, Jan. 13, 1763, died in St. Petersburg, July 4, 1881. He entered the French army as 2d lieutenant, and sailed in 1782 for the United States, where he served till the peace. He was promoted on his return to France, and held the rank of colonel

when the revolution broke out. He then left France, was admitted into the Russian service, and distinguished himself under Potemkin in Bessarabia, and under Repnin in Moldavia. In 1792, in concert with many émigrés, he joined as a volunteer the Prussian army under the duke of Brunswick, and afterward the Austrian troops under the prince of Saxe-Coburg, participating in the battles fought by both against his own countrymen. On the retreat of the Austrians in 1795, he returned to Russia, where he became a lieutenant-general in 1799, and was made a count of the empire. In 1805, at the battle of Austerlitz, he commanded a division which was almost entirely destroyed; this loss caused him to be for a while disgraced. From 1807 to 1812 he was employed in the Russian war against the Turks. Under Tchitchagoff he pursued the remnants of the great French army from Russia, and kindly treated such prisoners as fell into his hands. In 1813 he participated in the campaign in Germany, contributed to the victory of Leipsic, and advanced as far as the Rhine. In concert with Blücher, he marched toward Paris, fought in nearly every important battle during the "campaign of France," and was present at the first occupation of the French capital. In 1815 he was appointed governor of Cherson and the Crimea. He caused Odessa to be made a free port, and received in 1822 the title of governor of New Russia. The next year he lost Alexander's good graces, and was recalled to service only on the accession of Nicholas, whom he accompanied to Moscow to be present at his coronation. In 1828 he served in the war against the Turks, was intrusted with the defence of Wallachia, worsted the enemy in several encounters, and received the command of all the Russian troops in the Danubian principalities; but Diebitch having been promoted to the chief command, Langeron, who was his senior in rank, declined serving under him, and retired to St. Petersburg.

LANGHORNE, JOHN, an English poet and miscellaneous author, born in Kirkby-Stephen, Westmoreland, in 1735, died in Wells, Somersetshire, in April, 1779. He took orders, and afterward went to Cambridge, where he supported himself by teaching in a gentleman's family. On account of an unfortunate attachment to the daughter of his employer he left his situation and went to London, where he wrote for the periodical press, obtained the curacy of St. John's, Clerkenwell, and was appointed by Dr. Hurd assistant preacher of Lincoln's Inn. In 1765 he published a short poem entitled "Genius and Valor," to defend the Scotch against the aspersions of Churchill; for this he received the degree of D.D. from the university of Edinburgh in 1766, and in the following year he married the lady to whom he had previously paid unsuccessful suit. She belonged to a wealthy family, and the living of Blagden in Somersetshire was purchased for her husband; but she died within a year in child

bed. Langhorne then removed to Folkestone, where, in conjunction with his brother William, who held a curacy in that town, he wrote his translation of Plutarch's "Lives" (1771), the work by which he is best known. He married again, and lost his second wife also in childbed in 1776, an affliction which is said to have led him into intemperance. In 1777 he obtained a prebend in the cathedral of Wells. He was a voluminous writer of tales, short poems, and sermons, which are little valued. A collection of his poems with a memoir of the author was published by his son in 1802.

LANGLÄNDE, LANGELANDE, or LONGLAND, ROBERT, the supposed author of the "Vision of Piers Ploughman," born in Cleobury Mortimer, Shropshire, in the first half of the 14th century. Nothing is known of him except from traditions current at least as early as the 16th century, according to which he was educated at Oxford, and became a monk of Malvern. The familiarity of the author with the Scriptures and the church fathers indicates that he was an ecclesiastic; several local allusions in the poem, and the fact that its scene is the "Malverne hilles," prove that it was composed on the borders of Wales; and internal evidence fixes its date at about 1362. It narrates the dreams of Piers Ploughman, who, weary of the world, falls asleep beside a stream in a vale among the Malvern hills; and while satirizing in vigorous allegorical descriptions the corruptions in church and state, and the vices incident to the various professions of life, and painting the obstacles which resist the amelioration of mankind, it presents the simple ploughman as the embodiment of virtue and truth, and the representative of the Saviour. Its ancient popularity appears from the large number of MS. copies which still exist, most of them belonging to the latter part of the 14th century. It was a favorite of religious and political reformers, and several imitations of it appeared, the most important of which was "Piers Ploughman's Crede," written about 1393 by some Wycliffite, assailing the clergy, and especially the monks. In 1550 the "Vision of Piers Ploughman" was printed by the reformers, and so favorably received that 3 editions were sold within a year, and the name of the ploughman is often introduced in the political tracts of the 16th and 17th centuries. This poem is a remarkable example of a system of verse, derived from the AngloSaxons, and marked by a regular alliteration instead of rhyme. There are two classes of manuscripts, which give the text with considerable variations. The best edition both of the "Vision" and the "Creed" is that of Thomas Wright (2 vols., London, 1856), with notes, a glossary, and variations.

LANGLES, LOUIS MATHIEU, a French orientalist, born near St. Didier, Aug. 23, 1763, died Jan. 28, 1824. He studied Arabic and Persian under Silvestre de Sacy, and in 1787 published a French translation from the Persian of Tamerlane's "Political and Military Institutes," sup

posed to have been written by Tamerlane in the Mongol language. He was intrusted with the publication of the Mantchu-French lexicon by Father Amiot, which he accomplished with accuracy and success. He induced the French republican government to establish the special school of oriental languages, which is still in existence. He was appointed its first administrator, and professor of the Persian, Malay, and Mantchu, but he taught only the first of these languages.

LANGRES, a fortified town of France, in the department of Haute-Marne, built on a steep hill on the left bank of the Marne, on the railway from Paris to Muhlhouse, distant from Paris 185 m.; pop. in 1856, 8,570. Next to Briançon it is the most elevated town in the empire. The most important manufacture is cutlery. Langres has been the see of a bishop since the 3d century.

LANGTOFT, PETER, an English chronicler, so called from the parish of Langtoft in Yorkshire, flourished in the latter half of the 13th century and the commencement of the 14th. Little is known of his life beyond the fact that he was a canon regular of the order of St. Austin, and produced a translation from the Latin into French verse of Bosenham's "Life of Thomas à Becket," and a French metrical "Chronicle of England," from Trojan times to the end of the reign of Edward I. The manuscripts of the latter are preserved in the Cottonian collection in the British museum, and among the Arundel manuscripts in the same repository. The "Chronicle" has been rendered into English verse by Robert de Brunne.

LANGTON, STEPHEN, an English prelate, born probably in the first half of the 12th century, died in Slindon, Sussex, July 9, 1228. He was educated at the university of Paris, and eventually became canon of Notre Dame and chancellor of the university. Visiting Rome in 1206, he was made a cardinal by Innocent III., and in the succeeding year was consecrated by him archbishop of Canterbury, to which see he had been elected at the recommendation of the pope, and in opposition to the claims of John de Gray, whom King John of England had compelled the monks of Canterbury to elect. This circumstance gave rise to the quarrel between John and Innocent, one of the consequences of which was that Langton was kept out of his see until the submission of the king to the pope in 1213, after which he was acknowledged archbishop of Canterbury. In the same year he joined the confederacy of barons opposed to the misgovernment of John, and at a meeting of the heads of the revolt in London urged the restoration of the charter of Henry I. He adhered faithfully to his party throughout the struggle, and for his refusal to excommunicate the barons, at the command of Innocent, was suspended from the exercise of his archiepiscopal functions. Little is known of his subsequent history. He was reputed a man of great learning, and was the author of several theological treatises.

LANGUAGE (Lat. lingua, anciently dingua, tongue), in general, the manifestation of human thoughts and feelings by articulate sounds. The various nanes which designate it are derived in most languages from roots signifying the functions and properties of the tongue: thus, Arab. lisan, language, laqlaq, tongue; Armen. liesu, Slavic iazik (originally liaz-ik), from Sans. lih, to lick, taste; Lat. loqu-ela, of the same root as Gr. λoyos, speech, reason; Sans. rasat, speaking, sounding, and rasana, sound, tongue, taste, from rasa, to sound, taste; Gr. yawooa, tongue, language, analogous to Slav. glos, hlas, sound, voice, Welsh llais, voice, and Coptic las, language. Wilhelm von Humboldt defines language to be "the breaking forth of the power of speech, according to the mental cast of a people," thus giving a paraphrase of the German Sprache (composed of aus, out, and brechen, to break), analogous to the Anglo-Saxon spaec, speak. The Latin sermo, discourse, consists of ser-ere men-tem, to sow or scatter the mind; thus, also, di-ser-ere, to sow or scatter about, to discourse. The German Rede, speech, coincides radically with the Greek pew, to flow, speak, and pnoow, to break forth, proclaim, whence pnTwp, speaker; and with the Latin reor, to think, and ratio, reason. The French parole, and Spanish palabra, word, come from the Latin parabola (Gr. napaßoλn), a comparison. These and all other words in other languages, derived from the name of the tongue, are symbolic, and serve as examples of the formation of words in general. While synonymous or related in respect of signification, they are heteronymous or heterophonous according to the radical sounds or syllables from which they are derived.Philology is a term concerning the meaning of which there is little agreement among its votaries. Plato meant by it love of speech, Socrates love of philosophical discussion, Isocrates and Aristotle love of knowledge, and the Alexandrians love of books. The Romans translated it by eruditio, doctrina, literarum studium, and cognitio. In the middle ages it was applied to the study of Greek and Latin writers, or to the knowledge of languages and archæology in general. To Fr. A. Wolf, it was all learning pertaining to Greek and Roman antiquity; to Boeckh, the knowledge of the whole life and activity of any people at any definite time; to Matthiæ, the study of the Greek and Latin languages and antiquities; to Mützell, the science of verbal signification, or of the manifestation of the human mind by language; to K. O. Müller, the history of mankind and the full conception of ancient spiritual life; to Schelling, the construction, history, and contemplation of works of art and science; and to Milhausen, the science and art of education, or of conveying instruction to others. Others define philology as research into the languages of cultivated nations, and into language as such, in order to recognize from its essential characteristics the nature of our intellectual powers. Others restrict it to certain particular languages, as for

instance to the Hebrew, qualifying it by the epithet "sacred." Modern writers especially limit the term to such languages and literatures as have attained a permanent form, and are not subject to further fluctuations. Ancient philosophy comprehended what we now call physiology, psychology, and philology. To avoid ambiguity it would be advisable to call the science of language glossology, under which are included both the nature of language as such, and its various developments by different nations in particular languages, examined with a view to acquiring a knowledge of the laws of the human mind. Philology is thus confined to the study of written monuments.-Grammar, as usually defined, is the art of speaking and writing correctly, and embraces the rules for the proper use of any language. It was one of the 3 branches of the trivium of the middle ages, which with the 4 branches of the quadrivium constituted the 7 liberal arts of the Alexandrian Greeks. It is commonly divided into 5 parts: orthoëpy (right speaking); orthography (right writing); etymology (derivation of words); syntax (Gr. ovv, together, and raσow, to put), which treats of the structure of sentences; and prosody (Gr. pos, for, and won, a song), which treats of the quantity and accent of syllables and the laws of versification. Beside the special and peculiar grammars of each language, the science of comparative, historical, or philosophical grammar has in the present century made great progress. It treats the essential and common characteristics of human expression, the whole art of the communication of thought by signs. In its widest compass, it gives the analysis of every sentence, shows the several classes of words which correspond to the several classes of ideas, and the various modifications which words receive, or the different modes of arrangement of which they are capable, in order to express all the modifications of thought; it considers alike speech, writing, and gesticulation as modes of expression, each of which it aims to decompose into its simplest elements; it follows words through all their transformations and compositions, and penetrates to the simple and fundamental ideas represented by their roots; it develops the various significations of words, one from another, by virtue of the relation of resemblance or contrast between them, which gives rise to figures of speech; it seeks after the mutual relations of speech and thought, traces the natural symbolism in language, and shows that its formulas are not only means for preserving ideas, but also instruments for acquiring new ones; and it goes back to the origin of language, and by a wide comparison illustrates its growth, common qualities, and various groups and classifications from the remotest time. Though all of these questions form parts of the same science, they have rarely been treated together in grammatical works. The first alone has universally been included; the second has usually been added; Condillac and others embraced also the last. Dumarsais was the first

who aimed to treat them all, a project which was more successfully carried out by Court de Gébelin. He decomposed words into their last elements, showed the origin and significance of these elements, and then traced them through various languages. The essential elements of language are substantives and attributives. Every thing else is invented only for ease, despatch, or ornament. Substantives or nouns are the names of objects, of things that either exist or are conceived to exist, and they do not of themselves mark either quantity, quality, action, or relation. They are distinguished as proper, designating single individuals, as Cæsar, Henry; or common, applicable to a class, as animal, house. They may admit of modifications by gender, those which denote male beings being of the masculine gender, those which denote females being feminine, and those which denote neither being neuter. In this respect, most languages deviate more frequently than the English from the order of nature, and make many inanimate substances in which sex has no existence either masculine or feminine. They are modified also by number, to distinguish unity and plurality; and by case, to show various relations between the noun and other words in the sentence, usually indicated in English by prepositions, but in the classical and many other languages by terminations. The pronouns are words invented to sometimes supply the place of nouns. They are short words, having no meaning in themselves, but having the full meaning of the substantive which they represent, the constant repetition of which is thus avoided, when they are substituted for it in the immediately subsequent members of a discourse. Like the noun they admit of number, gender, and case; and they are also distinguished as of the first, second, or third person, according as they designate the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person spoken of. Attributives are in general words which are not expressive of things that exist or are conceived to exist, but of their quantity, quality, action, or relation. They are either verbs, participles, adjectives, or adverbs. A verb affirms an action, done or suffered, or a state of being, and is accordingly active, passive, or neuter. The condition and time under which this action or state occurs is indicated by modes and tenses. Beside the present, past, and future, there are other tenses, varying in number in different languages, made by combining some conditional circumstance with one or all of the divisions of time, as for instance whether the action is conceived as completed or not at the time spoken of. Both the tenses and modes, the latter of which affirms the action of the verb, either directly, or as a matter of possibility or hypothesis, or as a command or request, have been variously classified. In English there are usually reckoned 6 tenses and 4 modes, which are illustrated in the following 10 forms: I write or am writing, wrote or was writing, have written, had written, shall or will write, and shall

have written; I write, may or can write, write thou, and to write. Verbs are also inflected to distinguish number and person. According to Dr. Hunter, every verb is expressive of an attribute, of time, and of an affirmation, and if the affirmation be taken away there will remain the attribute and the time, which together constitute a participle. The English has the present and the past participle, as writing, written, but no future, which is found in the Greek and Latin. An adjective is distinguished from a participle as implying only an attribute. It designates the qualities, and not the acts or motions, of substances. These qualities being the same, whether in male, female, or inanimate objects, the adjective should strictly admit of no variation for gender, though the English is exceptional in making none. The qualities, however, may exist in different degrees in different objects, and hence what are termed the three degrees of compar ison, as wise, wiser, wisest. Adverbs are the attributes of verbs, qualifying the action which they express. They indicate quantity, quality or mode, relation, time, space, &c., as moderately, quickly, more, when, upward. Auxiliary parts of speech are the article, conjunction, preposition, and interjection. The article de fines and points out objects as distinguished from others of the same class. The indefinite article "a" or "an" separates but a single unspecified object from the class to which it belongs, and cannot be applied to plurals. The definite article "the" is applied specifically to one or more objects, pointing them out as those of which alone in their class something is affirmed or denied, and therefore belongs equally to both numbers. Conjunctions conjoin sentences, prepositions conjoin nouns and pronouns, and interjections are unconnected words, having no relation to the syntax of a sentence, the instinctive and inorganic utterances of sudden sensation or vehement passion. Horne Tooke describes them as the brutish and miserable refuge of the speechless, and says that the whole dominion of language is erected on their downfall. In the Chinese grammatical system, every root is a word, and obtains the character which we denominate a part of speech merely by its position relatively to the other words in the sentence.-Etymology (Gr. ervμos, true, from TunTw, to strike, print; hence, imprinted, true to the original) is that branch of glossology which relates to the origin of words. As one of the parts of grammar, it is restricted to the theory of inflections, that is, to the declension of nouns, the declension and comparison of adjectives, and the conjugation of verbs. Etymon is the term used to designate the type of the root, i.e., its essential form; thus: Gr. μopp-n, an anagram of the Latin form-a; Ger. Topf, inverted in the Eng. pot. Many words in all languages are mere dead matter, incapable of analysis, and imported with the things they are used to name, just like labels affixed to articles of merchandise. Such are, from names of places, bayonet, from Bayonne; calico, from Calicut;

milliner, from Milan; pistol, from Pistoja; china, nankin, arras, &c.; from names of men, guillotine, mackintosh, silhouette, raglan, &c. Many are quid-pro-quos, as horse radish instead of mer radish or sea root (from radix, root, preceded by mare, sea, mistaken for the English word of the same form); rosemary, from ros marinus, sea dew, and not from rosa Mariæ; butterfly for flutterfly; buck-wheat for beech-wheat (Anglo-Sax. boc), &c. Many are regarded as AngloSaxon without being so in fact, as butter, from Bous and Tupov, cow-cheese; and squirrel from σκιουρος, shadow-tail. Many words of the same form come from different etyma; thus, sound, from sanus, healthy, sinus, gulf, sonus (tonus), noise, fundus (Fr. sonder), depth; Ger. kosten, from either Lat. gustare, to taste, or constare, Ital. costare, to cost.-Speech is the characteristic of man. According to Jean Jacques Rousseau, culture is indispensable to the contrivance of language; but language is not less necessary to the development of culture. Unable to solve the problem of the origin of language, Plato supposed it to be divinely inspired. The same view has not been uncommon among Christians. But Democritus, Epicurus, and Cicero among the ancients, and Monboddo, Adam Smith, Dugald Stewart, and most modern scholars, favor the natural creation of speech by the innate faculties of man. The records of history give little light on the subject. Plato and the other Greek philosophers were disqualified for obtaining an adequate view of the nature of language by the patriotic narrowness which made them look with contempt on foreign nationalities. Some great principles of glossology are however found in Plato's "Cratylus," a disputation between Socrates, Cratylus, and Hermogenes on the propriety of names. Cratylus asserts that every thing has a name belonging to it by nature, and not by an arbitrary convention. Wordframers, who express the connection between Vocables and objects, are regarded as the rarest of artists. Homer distinguished the names given by the gods from such as are used by men: "whom the gods call Xanthus, but men Scamander." Some of the examples of etymology given in the "Cratylus" are superficial, and some profound; thus: Vuxn, soul, from voiv oxel kaι exel, it conveys and keeps nature; Xpovos, time, from к-povv-os, stream, equivalent to Ger. ge-ron-nen, run; IIλovтwv, from λeos, full, and dovval, to give. An influence on the formation of words is attributed to gesticulation; sagacious hints are given on the meaning and changes of sounds; and barbarian languages are justly appreciated for the natural significancy of their words. Pythagoras, when asked what being he thought to be the wisest, replied: "First, the number, and secondly, that which has given names to things." By the former he meant the word, by the latter the soul. The words for number, word, and god all have the same root, « or yv, as in the words numerus, nomen, and numen. The guttural sound, which disappears in these examples, re

mains in yvwun, cognoscere, Ger. kennen, and Eng. know, which are akin to gignere and generare.-Manifold opinions have been advanced concerning the original language. Herodotus relates that Psammetichus, wishing to learn which was the first language, ordered two babes to be brought up without ever hearing a human sound. They were nurtured on the milk of goats which were brought to them to suck, and after two years pronounced first the word bekos, which in Phrygian meant bread. The Egyptians, therefore, according to Herodotus, admitted that the Phrygians were more ancient than themselves. The preeminent antiquity of the Hebrew has been often maintained; that of the Greek by Peteric, Latin by J. Hugo, Cymbric by Mylius, Scythic by Bodhorn and Saumaise, Ethiopic by Reading, Chinese by J. Webb, Basque by Larramendi, Breizad by Latour d'Auvergne, Flemish by Van Gorop, Swedish by Rudbeck and Stjernhjelm, and Celto-Scythic, the mother of the Slavic, by Kirchmayer. Grotius, De Gébelin, and others, find traces of the primitive language in all others. It was the opinion of Klopstock that writing and language were invented together and simultaneously by several nations. The roots of languages shed much light on the operations of the human mind. The following are examples taken from the languages most generally known: Sent-ire, root set, analogous to the compound ta n-g-ere, tactus, touch; in-stinct, stung-in, in-tu-eri, &c. Per-cip-ere, seize through; Ger. emp-find-en, to find-in, An-schau-ung, on-see-ing, &c. Intel-lig-ere (inter-lig-are), to under-stand, Ger. Ver-stand, and Ver-nun-ft (ver-nehm-en, percip-ere, though used for reason); co-git-are (cum-agit-are), con-tem-pl-ari (cum-ten-dere and plus). Ju-dic-are (justum indic-are); Ger. Urtheil (or-deal); кpiv-elv, dis-cern-ere; re-præsent-are, Ger. sich vor-stell-en; re-flect-ere; concip-ere, Ger. be-greif-en (be-gripe); denk-en (to think), of the same root with Lat. doc-eo, dic-o, dox-ew, doyμa, Eng. tok-en, sig-num. Twσkw, co-gnosco, cen-seo, Eng. ken, know; and diavola. Lat. sci-o, whence Eng. ski-ll, separate. Meditari, met-iri, men-s-urare, med-ius, mod-us, modius, &c., the root of all of which signifies middle, and therefore measure; hence mens, moneo, Ger. mein-en, Mann, Men-sch; Eng. mind, mean-ing, man; Lat. ho-mo(n), hu-man-us; for man is the measurer with his men-s (mind) and man-us (hand). Romanic pens-are, from Lat. pend-ere, pond-erare, to weigh, and in-tendere, to apply (from tend-ere, at-tend-ere, to stretch), that is, to stretch the power of the mind. Gr. Eide, Lat. vid-eo, and idea, Ger. wis-sen, Eng. to wit and wise; Sans. vid, Zend. veed, Slav. vid-eti, to see, know; hence veda, science, and Sans. budh, to discern, &c. These words are examples of two important principles in the labyrinth of languages, namely: that all so called metaphysical terms are in reality metaphorical expressions of material acts and properties to which the mind likens its own operations; and that languages do not diverge in the