dispelled by the change in French policy after the 18th Brumaire. The Helvetian directory was dissolved, and La Harpe, being suspected of conspiring against the new order of things, was arrested; but he made his escape, repaired to Paris, and was told by Bonaparte that "he had better leave Switzerland alone." He then retired to private life at Plessis-Piquet, near Paris, devoting himself to agricultural pursuits, until the fall of the empire revived his hopes of his country's emancipation. In 1814, having received a visit from the emperor Alexander, he resumed his influence over the mind of his former pupil; and if he could not prevail upon him to favor his democratic plans in regard to Switzerland, he at least contributed to the preservation of that confederation, and to the liberation of his own canton of Vaud from the rule of Bern. After the treaty of Vienna he resided at Lausanne. During the most active periods of his life he published a number of pamphlets in which he expounded his plans for the reorganization of his country, and denounced the tyranny and misdeeds of its old governments.

LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE, a French critic, born in Paris, Nov. 20, 1739, died there, Feb. 11, 1803. He was left an orphan in his 10th year, was brought up by charity, and was admitted as a free scholar to the Harcourt college, where he gave early evidence of literary talent. On leaving this institution, he wrote with several of his comrades some satirical verses on certain members of the college, for which he was imprisoned by the police for several months. This severe punishment of a trifling offence, together with his narrow circumstances, added to his naturally bitter disposition. His first attempts at poetry were heroic epistles, a kind of poem then much in vogue. In 1763 he produced his tragedy of Warwick, which was successful. Three other plays of the same kind, Timoléon, Pharamond, and Gustave Wasa, failed; and, disappointed in his anticipations of fortune, he remained for nearly two years the guest of Voltaire. On his return to Paris in 1768, he became a contributor to the Mercure de France, and made himself noted for the bitterness of his criticism. At the same time he competed successfully for the academical prizes, 11 of which he won within 10 years, 8 being at the French academy. These successes procured in 1776 his election to that learned society. The new tragedies he produced about the same time were mercilessly criticized, and, with the exception of Philoctete (1780) and Coriolan (1784), were coldly received by the public. He was meanwhile the correspondent of the grand duke Paul of Russia, the son of Catharine the Great, and undertook several publications, especially an Abrégé de l'histoire générale des voyages, from which he realized some profit. He adopted the revolutionary principles, brought on the stage in 1791 Mélanie, ou la religieuse, an indirect attack on the clergy, which was warmly received, showed himself an ardent Jacobin, and went so far as to become an occasional flatterer of VOL. X.-17

Robespierre. He was nevertheless incarcerated during the reign of terror, and this made such an impression upon his mind that his opinions underwent a complete change; he became a devout Christian and an uncompromising enemy of all that was called philosophy. On his liberation after the 9th Thermidor, he resumed with great success a course of public lectures which he had begun a few years before. These lectures, collected under the title of Lycée, ou cours de littérature ancienne et moderne (12 vols. 8vo., 1799-1805), are still regarded as a standard of literary criticism. His Correspondance littéraire with the grand duke Paul was printed in 1801 (4 vols. 8vo.); and the severity and selfishness with which the judgments it contains are stamped, rekindled the hatred against him, and embittered the last years of his life.

LA HIRE, PHILIPPE DE, a French mathematician, born in Paris, March 18, 1640, died there, April 21, 1718. At first he followed the profession of painting and sculpture, which was that of his father, but while in Italy in 1660 he turned his attention to mathematics. In 1679 he and Picard were appointed to make certain surveys along the coast of Gascony; and in 1683 he was employed, in conjunction with Cassini, to complete the measurement of an arc of the meridian, which had been commenced in 1669. His most important scientific work is his Sectiones Conica (Paris, 1685).

LA HOGUE. See CAPE LA HAGUE. LAHORE, a city of Hindostan, capital of the Punjaub, situated about 1 m. from the E. bank of the Ravee, in lat. 31° 36' N., long. 74° 21′ E.; pop. estimated at 95,000. It is walled with brick and defended by a citadel and outworks. There are several fine mosques, including one of red sandstone said to have been built by Aurungzebe. The Hindoos have a number of temples, and in the neighborhood are some handsome tombs, one of the most attractive of which is that of the emperor Jehanghir. The city has narrow streets, tall gloomy houses, small but well furnished bazaars, and a vernacular college supported partly by the British government, and having about 550 pupils. The surrounding country is covered with vast ruins, attesting the magnificence of the ancient city, which was the capital of the Ghaznevide dynasty in the 12th century, and the favorite residence of the descendants of Baber. The famous Runjeet Sing was invested with the rajahship of Lahore by Zeman Shah in 1799, and after his death the territory was seized by the British and consolidated with the rest of the Punjaub.

LAIBACH. See LAYBACH.

LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON, a British traveller, born in Edinburgh, Dec. 27, 1794, murdered near Timbuctoo, Africa, in Sept. 1826. He was educated for the profession of his father, who was a schoolmaster, but joined the army, and served in 1811 in Barbados as ensign under his uncle, the future Gen. Gordon. In 1820 he went to Sierra Leone, and became aide-de-camp to the governor, Sir Charles McCarthy. He

took an active part in the efforts made by the English government to stop the slave trade by commercial treaties with the natives, opened negotiations with the king of the Foolahs at Timbo, the capital of Foota Jallon, and contributed much to the knowledge of that country and of the upper course of the Niger. The war with the Ashantees, in which Governor McCarthy lost his life, compelled him to return to Sierra Leone. On coming back to England he was promoted to the rank of major, and placed at the head of an African exploring expedition. He sailed for Tripoli in 1825, and on July 26, 1826, joined a caravan for Timbuctoo, which he reached Aug. 18; but while on a tour to Sansanding he fell into the hands of a fanatical Arab sheik, who on his refusal to embrace Mohammedanism strangled him. He published an account of his first journey under the title of "Travels through the Timannee, Kooranko, and Soolima Countries, to the Sources of the Rokelle and Niger, in the Year 1822" (8vo., London, 1825).

LAING, MALCOLM, a Scottish historian, born at Strynzia, in the Orkneys, in 1762, died there in 1818. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh, studied law, and was called to the bar in 1784; but, not succeeding in his profession, he turned his attention to literature. His first work was a continuation of Dr. Henry's "History of Great Britain," which was followed in 1800 by a "History of Scotland from the Union of the Crowns to the Union of the Kingdoms." In 1804, a 2d edition of the latter production being called for, he appended to it an essay "On the Participation of Mary, Queen of Scots, in the Murder of Darnley." In 1807 he was returned to parliament as member for the Orkneys, but ill health soon compelled him to withdraw to private life. Beside the works above mentioned, he published an edition of the "History and Life of King James VI." from the original manuscript, which had served as the foundation of the forgeries of Crawfurd, in his "Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland."-His brother, SAMUEL LAING, is known as the author of books of travel, and of works on social and political subjects. A new edition of his book on Norway appeared in 1854.

LAING, SAMUEL, a British railway financier, born in Kirkwall, Scotland, about 1810. He was educated at St. John's college, Cambridge, and in 1840 was called to the bar. Shortly afterward he became private secretary to Mr. Labouchere, then president of the board of trade, and was also for several years secretary of the railway department. In 1844 he prepared an important report on "British and Foreign Railways." In 1845 he was actively employed in preparing the reports presented by the railway commission presided over by Lord Dalhousie; and upon the rejection of them by the house of commons he resigned his seat at the board of trade and resumed the practice of his profession. In 1848 he was elected chairman of the Brigh ton railway company, and in 1852 was returned

to parliament for his native borough. The same year he became chairman of the crystal palace company, and was instrumental in causing the palace to be opened at Sydenham in 1854. He has also participated in the management of important lines of railway in France, Belgium, and Holland, and of the great western railway of Canada. He is known as an able and fluent speaker. In 1857 he was returned to parliament for the borough of Wick, and reëlected in 1859.

LAIRESSE, GERARD DE, a Flemish painter, born in Liége in 1640, died in Amsterdam in 1711. At the age of 16 he was a successful painter, and received large prices for his pictures; but dissipation kept him in poverty until he removed to Amsterdam, where he rose to fortune and reputation. At the age of 50 he became blind, but he dictated his discourses on the theory and practice of painting, which were published under the title of Groot schilderboek (Amsterdam, 1707).

LAÏS, the name of two celebrated courtesans of ancient Greece. I. The elder Laïs lived during the period of the Peloponnesian war, and is generally supposed to have been a native of Corinth. She was one of the most beautiful women of her age, but remarkable for her avarice and caprice. Among her lovers was the philosopher Aristippus, who dedicated two of his works to her. She grew enamored of Eubotas of Cyrene, who promised to take her with him to his native city if he should prove victor in the Olympic games. He succeeded in the contest, and fulfilled his promise by taking thither her portrait. In her old age she became intemperate, and died at Corinth, where a monument was erected to her memory in the grove called the Cranion. II. The younger Lais was a native of Hyccara in Sicily, and lived in the age of Philip and Alexander the Great. She removed to Athens in her youth, and is said to have been induced by the painter Apelles to adopt the profession of a courtesan. She subsequently became the rival of the famous Athenian hetæra Phryne; but falling in love with a handsome Thessalian youth named Hippolochus, she accompanied him to his native country, where her beauty exciting the jealousy and envy of some of her sex, they allured her into a temple of Aphrodite, and there stoned her to death. She was buried on the banks of the Peneus; the inscription engraven on her monument is given by Athenæus.

LAKE (It. lacca), a pigment prepared from infusions of vegetable dyes or of cochineal, by causing the coloring matter to unite and form a precipitate with some earthy or metallic oxide. This is usually alumina, but the oxides of tin and zinc sometimes serve as the basis. A solution of alum is employed to furnish the alumina, and potash is commonly added to it—always if the infusions are acid. If the infusions are made with alkaline liquors, the alum solution may be added alone. A decoction of turmeric yields an orange lake; of cochineal, a brilliant red lake (see CARMINE); of Brazil wood, also a red,

made violet by excess of potasn, and brownish by cream of tartar. Madder also gives a red lake. Persian or French berries produce yellow lakes; and green lakes may be obtained from these mixed with blue pigments. The varieties of blue pigments in use render it needless to prepare blue lakes.

LAKE, the name of 4 counties in the United States. I. A N. E. co. of Ohio, bordering on Lake Erie, and drained by Grand and Chagrin rivers; area, 220 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 14,654. The surface is undulating and the soil a fertile clayey loam, with occasional ridges of sand. Iron ore is found. The productions in 1850 were 336,312 bushels of Indian corn, 51,744 of wheat, 151,178 of oats, 120,104 of potatoes, 25,582 tons of hay, and 142,779 lbs. of wool. There were 9 grist mills, 39 saw mills, 4 iron founderies, 1 newspaper office, 26 churches, and 3,517 pupils attending public schools. The Cleveland and Erie railroad passes through the county. Capital, Painesville. II. A N. W. co. of Ind., bordering on Lake Michigan and Illinois, bounded S. by the Kankakee river, and drained by the Calumick and Deep; area, 468 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 3,991. The surface is level and diversified by woodlands and prairies, with large marshes near the Kankakee; the soil is generally fertile. The productions in 1850 were 138,040 bushels of Indian corn, 46,389 of wheat, 92,424 of oats, 8,949 tons of hay, and 11,526 lbs. of wool. There were 3 grist mills, 4 saw mills, 2 newspaper offices, 5 churches, and 375 pupils attending public schools. The Michigan southern and northern Indiana and the Michigan central railroads pass through the county. Capital, Crown Point. III. A N. E. co. of Ill., bordering on Lake Michigan and Wisconsin, and drained by Fox and Des Plaines rivers; area, 425 sq. m.; pop. in 1855, 17,630. The surface is chiefly an undulating prairie diversified by tracts of timber and many small lakes. The soil is a rich, deep, black loam. The productions in 1850 were 320,071 bushels of wheat, 168,915 of Indian corn, 250,733 of oats, 35,506 tons of hay, 421,200 lbs. of butter, and 45,895 of wool. There were 4 grist mills, 3 saw mills, 1 newspaper office, 8 churches, and 2,391 pupils attending public schools. Capital, Waukegan. IV. A W. co. of the lower peninsula of Michigan, drained by the Notipeskago river and affluents of the Manistee; area about 700 sq. m.

It has been formed since 1850. LAKE OF THE WOODS (Fr. Lac des Bois), a body of water in the Hudson's Bay territory, British North America, on the frontier of Minnesota, about lat. 49° N., long. 95° W. It is 300 m. in circumference, and has an irregular outline indented by bays. A vast number of small islands dot its surface. The Winnipeg river flows from it on the N., and it receives Rainy river on the S. Wild rice grows plentifully along its shores.

LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LE FRANÇAIS DE, a French astronomer, born in Bourg, FrancheComté, July 11, 1732, died in Paris, April 4,

1807. His family name was Le Français, but he assumed that of Lalande at the outset of his scientific career. He was educated at the college of the Jesuits at Lyons, studied law in Paris, and was admitted to the bar, but gave up the legal profession to attend the lectures of De Lisle and Le Monnier. The latter, in 1751, procured him a scientific mission to Berlin, where he was to ascertain, through astronomical observations, the distance between the earth and the moon, while La Caille was making similar observations at the Cape of Good Hope. On his return in 1753, he was elected to the academy of sciences, assisted Clairaut in his researches on comets, especially that of Halley, and became in 1760 the editor of the Connaissance des temps, which he conducted until 1775, and subsequently from 1794 till his death. In 1762 he succeeded De Lisle in the chair of astronomy at the college of France, and during 46 years delivered lectures on that science. He reached the height of his fame when he published a map illustrating the two transits of Venus which were to take place in 1761 and 1769, and showing the exact time of those transits for all countries on the globe. About the same time he announced to the world the results of the calculations through which the distance between the sun and the earth had been definitely ascertained. He gave much attention to navigation, and delivered lectures and published works on this subject, which are highly valued. But the popularity acquired by his scientific labors did not satisfy his thirst for fame; and in order to keep public curiosity constantly alive, he stationed himself on the Pont-Neuf to give astronomical explanations to passers by; announced that he would travel in a balloon from Paris to Gotha, where a scientific congress was to be held; took care to have it reported that he ate spiders, caterpillars, worms, and other insects; and professed the boldest atheism.

LALLEMAND, CLAUDE FRANÇOIS, a French physician, born in Metz, Jan. 26, 1790, died in Marseilles, Aug. 25, 1854. After serving as assistant surgeon in the armies of the empire, he studied in Paris at the Hôtel Dieu under Dupuytren, and in 1819 was appointed professor of clinical surgery at Montpellier, in which office he remained till 1845, with the exception of 3 years during which he was suspended for his liberal political expressions. His most important work, the Recherches anatomico-pathologiques sur l'encéphale et ses dépendances (Paris, 1820-36), remarkable for its literary merits as well as its sagacious philosophical syntheses, established his reputation, and was translated into many languages. Elected in 1845 to the academy of sciences, he removed to Paris, and was consulted by patients from every part of Europe. Ibrahim Pasha visited him in Paris, and was formally received by Louis Philippe. His health failed again after his return to Egypt, and Lallemand went to that country in 1848 for his relief, but arrived too late. He was, how

ever, received with distinction by Mehemet Ali. He is the author of valuable works, and bequeathed 50,000 francs to the institute.

LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR, Count, baron of Tullendally or Tollendal in Ireland, a French soldier, born in Romans, Dauphiné, in Jan. 1702, beheaded in Paris, May 9, 1766. He was the son of Sir Gerard Lally, an Irish loyalist, who had accompanied James II. in his exile to France. He was educated to the profession of arms, and when scarcely 12 years old performed his first military service at the siege of Barcelona. For his gallantry at the siege of Kehl in 1733 and Philippsburg in 1734, where he saved his father's life, he was promoted to the rank of major. In 1737 he visited England, Ireland, and Scotland, with a view to promote the interests of the pretender; and in 1738 he was sent on a secret mission to St. Petersburg. In 1745 he distinguished himself at the battle of Fontenoy, where he led the Irish brigade whose gallantry secured victory to the French. The king promoted him to the rank of brigadiergeneral on the field. The same year, at the head of a body of volunteers, he landed in Scotland, joined the young pretender Charles Edward, served as his aide-de-camp at the battle of Falkirk, went twice to London, where a price had been set upon his head, barely escaped with his life, fell into the hands of smugglers, and owed his safety to his self-possession and daring. In 1755, being consulted by the French ministry upon the best mode of impairing the power of England, he strongly urged an attack upon her East Indian possessions. He was offered the command of an expedition to carry out his own plan, received the appointment of governor-general of the French establishments in the East, and sailed for his destination, May 2, 1757. But the means which had been placed at his disposal were wholly inadequate. He landed at Pondicherry, April 28, 1758, and found that the agents of the French East India company were secretly against him. Nevertheless, the Coromandel coast was conquered in a few weeks. He overcame all the obstacles thrown in his way, laid siege to Madras in the month of December, carried the Black Town, and had some prospect of success; but being unsupported by D'Aché, the commander of the French fleet, and having no money to pay his mutinous soldiers, he was finally obliged to retire on the arrival of an English fleet. Soon after he found himself besieged in Pondicherry by an enemy 10 times his superior in numbers. He held out for 10 months; but deserted by his fleet, betrayed by the agents of the French company, having exhausted his resources, and the garrison being reduced to 700 men, he was finally compelled to surrender at discretion, Jan. 14, 1761, to Gen. Coote, who had 22,000 troops under his command, and was supported by 14 ships. He was taken prisoner to London; but having heard that he was charged by his personal enemies with various crimes, he obtained his release on parole, re

paired to Paris, and, conscious of his own innocence, voluntarily entered the Bastile, in order to hasten his trial, but was left there for 19 months without examination. Being finally accused as a traitor and a defaulter by the very men who had been the cause of his ruin, a mock trial took place; witnesses of the worst character, some of whom were his own servants, were admitted to testify against him; he was refused counsel, and was not even allowed to present his defence; and at last, after a protracted secret deliberation, he was sentenced to death and executed. Several years afterward, the whole of these proceedings were revised; and the sentence was finally reversed in 1778.

LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHime Gérard, marquis de, a French politician, son of the preceding, born in Paris, March 5, 1751, died March 11, 1830. Although of legitimate birth, he was brought up, under the name of Trophime, in ignorance of his parentage until the eve of his father's execution. He first made himself known by his untiring efforts, during 12 years, to procure the reversal of his father's sentence, in which he secured the assistance of Voltaire, who wrote in his behalf. In 1789 he was one of the deputies of the nobles to the states-general; he supported moderate reforms, and favored the establishment of a constitutional monarchy with two chambers and an absolute power of veto vested in the king; but on the return of Louis XVI. to Paris, Oct. 6, he was so alarmed at the course of the revolutionists that he retired with Mounier to Coppet in Switzerland. There, under the title of Quintus Capitolinus aux Romains, he published in 1790 a pamphlet censuring the proceedings of the constituent assembly. He returned to Paris in 1792 to oppose the Jacobins, and was imprisoned, but escaped a few days previous to the September massacre and fled to England. In 1793 he applied to the convention to be appointed one of the counsel of King Louis XVI., but his request was not answered. He returned to France after the 18th Brumaire, and lived in retirement until the return of the Bourbons, when he was made a peer. LAMA. See LLAMA.

LAMAISM (Tungusic, Lam, ocean; Thibetan, Lama, road, a priest), the prevailing religion of Thibet and some other parts of Asia. It is an offshoot of Buddhism, with some tenets of Sivaism, engrafted on the ancient Thibetan religion, and on Mongolic Shamanism or spirit worship, the last traces of which yet exist in Siberia, as a species of demonolatry, marked by the practice of magic and many cruel customs. The Thibetans call their religion Ssangss r-Gyass-Kyu-tchoss, or Buddha's law. Many of its features are described in the article BUDDHISM (vol. iv., especially on pp. 68 and 69). -The history of the introduction of Buddhism into the snowy fastnesses of Thibet is imperfectly known. The Thibetan and Chinese annals relate, that the first religious king, who is said to have lived after some other fabulous monarchs, and who is known as Ssrong b-Tsan

s-Gam-po, the upright wise prince, after the transfer of his residence from the banks of the Yalung-kiang or eastern branch of the Yang-tsekiang, and after a war with the Chinese, having married a Chinese and a Nepaulese princess, received from their fathers many books and idols of Buddha, and built temples for the keeping of the latter. These were the nucleus of the city of Lassa (Lha-ssa, god-land), the metropolis of Lamaism. In A. D. 632 he sent his minister Thumi-Ssam-bho-ta to study Buddhism in Nepaul, and to adapt the Devanagari to the Thibetan language. The king translated the three principal sacred books into Thibetan. On account of this, and on account of the good laws he made, he received the title of Chakracartin, or the wheel-turner. To him also is attributed the introduction of the omnipotent mystic formula of the 6 syllables Aum ma-ni pad-me hum, which probably means: "God! treasure in (the) lotus, Amen!" (see BRAHMA, vol. iii. p. 617); it is moreover a greeting to Avalokitesvara, the patron saint of Thibet, one of its 3 Boddhisattvas; and also a spiritual and corporeal panacea, and a universal prayer. Another saintly king of the 9th century, the son of a Chinese princess, built a great monastery 3 days' journey S. E. from Lassa, and completed, by the aid of Indian pundits, the translation of the bKa'djur (pronounced Kadjur, versio verbi), the great canon in 3 sections, containing 1,083 works, in 100 volumes, and treating of discipline, metaphysics, the appearance of Buddhas, religious treasures, the Nirvana (see BUDDHISM, vol. iv. p. 66), and of magic formulas. The 3d incarnate king, KhrilDe Ssrong bTsan, built many cenobies by the aid of holy men from India and Nepaul, and founded the Lamaic hierarchy toward the end of the 9th century. He was, however, put to death by strangling, and many discontented Thibetans emigrated. Buddhism was rent by the sects of the Chinese and Indian schools, and was almost uprooted by King gLang-dar-ma, who was therefore called a Khubilghan of Shisnus (incarnatio diaboli). His two sons divided the Thibetan kingdom into U (Chinese, Uei, pure, holy), the eastern portion, with Lassa as its capital, and Tsang or the centre, the south-western portion, having as its metropolis gShissKa-rTse or Dzigartchi. Further civil broils compelled many to emigrate to Nga-ri, in the north-west, as well as into Kham, the original seats of the Thibetans, on the borders of Szuchuan, under Chinese protection. This did not avail much, as China was then weak, and was moreover separated from Thibet by the new state of the Hia or Tangut (Chinese, Si-fan), near the Koko-Nor, or Blue Lake. Buddhism was reimported from Kham, and Indians were invited into Nga-ri. Djo-bo-Atisha reorganized it, and his Thibetan disciple Brom-bakshi founded a moral sect, from which issued the great reformer who will be spoken of below. New monasteries were erected in the 11th and 12th centuries, of which the principal were Ra

sGreng, N. of Lassa; Ssa-skya, S. of Dzigartchi, the seat of the lama primate of that period; Bri-gung, 4 days' journey N. E. from Lassa, the seat of an anti-primate.-The glory of Lamaism dates from the conversion of the Mongols. Their ancient religion was Shamanic, consisting in the belief in Tegri (sky, god) and demons, in the souls of ancestors, and the like. Genghis Khan despised all priests, being indifferent to all creeds, as were his sons. But after the division of the Mongol empire into several powerful states, Batu Khan adopted Islamism, Khulaghu favored Christianity, while Kublai Khan (1259-'94), the conqueror of China, and founder of the Yu-en dynasty, became a Buddhist. An admirer of Chinese civilization, and a patron of learned men, he found it useful to acquire power in Thibet, which had been only partly conquered by Mangu Khan, by affording protection to the hereditary lama of Ssaskya. He divided the country into districts, and subjected them (1293) to this lama, who bore the names of Ti-ssu, emperor's teacher, Ta-pao-fa-vang, great precious law's king, Gromgon, protector of beings, and other titles from his contrivance of letters for the Mongolic language. This lama consecrated Kublai as emperor, and wrought many wonders; and on his demanding a higher throne than that of the emperor, the empress decided that he should have it only while performing sacred rites, and should sit as high as the emperor on all other occasions. Kublai and the Ti-ssu compared the Ka-djur with the Chinese copy and with the collection of the Kin dynasty. This concordant canon was printed in 1285-1306, with the assistance of Thibetan, Uiguric, Chinese, and Sanscrit scholars. The same emperor founded convents in Peking and in southern Mongolia; he restored the temples at U-tai; he surrendered the palaces of the Sung dynasty to the lamas; and he sent an embassy to Ceylon, which brought him the Bhikshu bowl, two molar teeth, and a miraculous image of Sakyamuni. This religious zeal was carried to its highest pitch by the successors of Kublai, so that many Chinese pretended to be monks, in order to escape the payment of taxes and the performance of other duties. About 500,000 such impostors are reported to have been expelled from the cloisters in a single province. After a rule of 89 years, the Mongol dynasty was expelled from China by a native priest of Fo, who founded the Ming dynasty (1368-1647). Among the successors of the great lama of Ssa-skya the most noteworthy were Sang-ko, his brother, and Tasi, a Boddhisattva (1347). They succeeded each other by natural inheritance, and not by incarnation. The Ming dynasty, desirous of maintaining Chinese supremacy in Thibet, divided the power of the hereditary primate. Tai-tsu conferred equal dignities and titles upon 4 lamas (1373). Tshing-tsu (1403-25) appointed 8 lamas with the title of cang (king) to be subordinate to the Ta-pao-fa-vang, Garma, who was not of the native primate family. A great reformation was