to which it is most closely joined or related. The other noun (which we may call the governing or directing noun) may either come before or after the genitive noun, as in English; thus, the man's shoe,' or 'the shoe of the man;' where the genitive noun is 'man' (in Hindústání mard), and the governing noun which is to direct us in forming the genitive is 'shoe' (júti). Now juti, a shoe,' in Hindústání happens to be feminine; therefore the genitive noun, mard, a man,' although masculine, must take the feminine ki to form the genitive. Hence the man's shoe,' in Hindústání will be mard kí jútí. So also in a sentence like the daughter's pitcher,' beti ká ghaṛá, the genitive noun beți, a daughter,' does not form its genitive with ki, although bețí is feminine, but with ká, because the governing or directing noun ghará, a pitcher,' is masculine.

79. When, however, the directing noun is masculine, and not in the nominative singular, then the genitive noun must take ke instead of ká, just as nouns like betá and ghará change á to e in all other forms of the singular but the nominative; thus, in the pitcher of the daughter,' would be in Hindústání beți ke ghare men; ke being used instead of ká, because ghare men is not in the nominative singular.

80. The fact is, that a noun in the genitive case may be regarded as a kind of adjective agreeing with the word to which it is joined, just as in English, we change a genitive noun into an adjective when we say 'a golden platter,' for 'a platter of gold,' expressed in Hindústání by sone ki rikábi. The genitive noun being thus made into a kind of adjective, generally goes before the noun to which it is joined, just as an adjective goes before its substantive in English; thus, sone ki rikábi, 'gold-of platter,' or 'golden platter,' mard kí jútí, 'man-of shoe.'

81. Note, however, that in many books framed on the Persian model, this order is often reversed; as, rikabi sone ki, 'platter gold-of,' jútí mard kí, 'shoe man-of.'

The following three rules will now be clear, and must be carefully learnt by heart:

82. Rule 1.-The genitive noun (that noun which in English is either preceded by of or ends in 's) takes ká, when the other noun to which it is joined is masculine and in the nominative singular; thus, mard ká beṭá [or bețá mard ká], 'the son of the man.'

83. Rule 2.—The genitive noun takes ke when the other noun to which it is joined is masculine, but not in the nominative singular. (Also, when the other noun is a masculine substantive in any case or form but the nominative used adverbially, some preposition being generally understood). Examples, mard ke bete [or bețe mard ke], 'the sons of the man,' mard ke bețe se [or bețe se mard ke], 'from the son of the man,' mard ke áge [or áge mard ke], 'in front of the man.'

84. Rule 3.-The genitive noun takes ki when the other noun is feminine, whatever its case, and whether singular or any case or form but the nominative used adverbially). Examples, plural. (Also, when the other noun is a feminine substantive in mard ki beti [or beți mard ki], 'the daughter of the man,' mard ki beți-án [or beți-án mard ki], 'the daughters of the man,' mard ki beti se [or beți se mard ki], 'from the daughter of the man,' mard ki beți-on se, from the daughters of the man,' shahr ki taraf, 'towards (in the direction of) the city.'

85. Note.-The Persian genitive is sometimes used in Hindústání, and is formed by putting the vowel i, or sometimes e, in the place of the English of,' as indicated at r. 28.

ADJECTIVES.

86. Adjectives ending in á change this termination to e or i, according to the number, gender, or case of the substantive they

qualify; the rule being the same as for ká, ke, ki (see rr. 82– 84); as, bará, -re, -ri, 'great.'

87. Some adjectives, however, ending in ά of Arabic and Persian origin remain unchanged; as, dána, wise.'

88. All other adjectives remain unchanged; as, pák mard, ‘a pure man,' or 'pure men,' pák 'aurat, a pure woman,' pák 'auraten, 'pure women,' ziyáda raunaq, 'excessive beauty.'

89. The particle sá, used to express resemblance and intensity, is changeable (like adjectives ending in a) to se and sí, according to the rule for ká, ke, kí (rr. 82-84) thus, tujh sá ádmí, ‘a man like you,' parí sí 'aurat, ‘a fairy-like woman,' bahut se ghore, 'a great many horses.'

90. Observe. Sá governs the genitive case either expressed or understood; when ka is expressed, ká sá, (‘like that of') will follow the rule for the changes of sá.

91. The ordinals up to fourth change their final d according to the same rule. The termination an, which marks the remaining ordinals, is changeable to en and in on the same principle.

92. Báyán 'left' (not 'right') follows the same rule.

93. Adjectives generally precede their substantives. But in Persian phrases the vowel i or sometimes e (called izáfat) is used to connect an adjective with a substantive, in which case the adjective comes last; as zubán-i-shirin, 'a sweet tongue,' khiyál-ikhám, ‘a vain idea,’ja án-i-khubsurat, ‘a beautiful youth.’ The vowel e is used after a noun ending in á or ú: as, balá-e-nágahání, 'a sudden calamity,' rú-e-zebá, 'a beautiful face.'

94. Adjectives, when they precede their substantives, do not take the plural terminations án, en, on; thus, gori laṛkí-án, “ fair girls' (not gori-án larkí-án); khúb kitáben, fine books' (not khúben kitáben); gore larkon ne, by fair boys' (not goron larkon ne); aise achchhe kámon se, 'from such good deeds.'

95. But when the adjective comes last, it may sometimes (especially in poetry) assume the plural terminations; as, ráten bhárí-án, 'tedious nights,' kothri-án bahut únchí-án, 'very lofty rooms.'

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

97. The termination of adjectives undergoes no change to express comparison. All that is required is to put the noun substantive or pronoun in the ablative case; thus, us se achchhá, 'better than that,' sulḥ jang se achchhi hai, 'peace is better than war,' wuh sultán se bará hai, he is greater than a king:' see syntax, r. 368.

98. Sometimes the adverbs ziyada and aur (meaning 'more' are joined to the adjective, as in English.

99. The superlative degree may be expressed by sab se; as, sab se baṛá, 'greatest of all' ('than all greater').

100. Sometimes the adjective is doubled; as, achchhá achchhá, ' very good.' 101. The Persian terminations tar and tarin and the Arabic prefix a are occasionally used; as, khub-tar or aḥsan, 'more beautiful,' khúb-tarin or aḥsan, 'most beautiful.' Similarly, bihtar, bihtarin, 'better, 'best.'

PRONOUNS.

102. In Hindústání, pronouns have no difference of form to express difference of gender. They differ only in number and person; thus: