naturally, for the one is of a tendency to persuade, the other is the very reverse; because people put themselves on their guard, as though against one who has a design upon them, just as they would against adulterated wine. [Let your style then be such] as was the case with the voice of Theodorus as compared with that of the other actors; for it appeared to be that of the character which was speaking, theirs, however, were foreign from the character. And the deceit is neatly passed off if one frame his nomenclature upon a selection from ordinary conversation; the thing which Euripides does, and first gave the hint of.

As, however, nouns and verbs are [the materials] of which the speech is made up, and as nouns admit so many species as have been examined in the "Poetics," out of the number of these we must employ but sparingly, and in very few places, exotic and compound words, and those newly coined; where they may be employed I will state hereafter: the reason [of the restriction] has been mentioned, viz., because they remove your style [from that of common life] more than is consistent with good taste. Words, however, of ordinary use, and in their original acceptations, and metaphors, are alone available in the style of prose: a proof [that this is the fact is] that these are the only words which all persons employ; for everybody carries on conversation by means of metaphors, and words in their primary sense, and those of ordinary use. Thus it is plain that if one should have constructed his style well, it will be both of a foreign character, and that [the art of the orator] may still elude observation, and [the style itself] will have the advantage of clearness; this, however, was laid down to be the perfection of rhetorical language. But of all nouns, those which are equivocal suit the purposes of the sophist, for by their help he effects his fallacies, while synonyms are of use to the poet; I mean these which are both synonyms and of common usage, as πορεύησθαι and βαδίζειν, for these two are both of common usage and synonymous to each other.

The nature then of each of these varieties, and how many species of metaphor there are, and also that this ornament is of the greatest effect, as well in poetry as prose, has been explained (as I have observed above), in the "Poetics." In prose, however, we should bestow the greater attention on them, in proportion as an oration has to be made up of fewer adjuments than a metrical composition. Moreover, the metaphor possesses in an especial manner [the beauties of] clearness and sweetness, with an air of being foreign; and it is not possible to derive it from any other person.

You must, however, apply, in the case both of epithets and metaphors, such as are appropriate; and this will depend on their being constructed on principles of analogy, otherwise they will be sure to appear in bad taste; because contraries show themselves to be such, particularly when set by each other. But you must consider, as a purple garment becomes a youth, what is equally so to an old man; since the same garment does not become [both].

And if you wish to embellish your subject, see you deduce your metaphor from such things coming under the same class as are better; and if to cry it down, from such as are worse: I mean, as the cases are opposed and come under the same genus, that the saying, for example, of a beggar, that "he prays," and of one who is praying, that "he begs» (both being species of asking), is to do the thing which has been mentioned; just as Iphicrates called Callias "a mere collector to the goddess, and not a bearer of the torch,» He, however, replied, "that he must needs be uninitiated himself, or he would not call him a collector, but a bearer of the torch.» For these are both services connected with the goddess; the one, however, is respectable, while the other is held in no repute. And some one [speaks of the courtiers of Dionysius as] Dionysian parasites; they, however, call themselves artificers. And these expressions are both metaphors; the one of persons who would

depreciate, the other the contrary.

Even robbers, nowadays, call themselves purveyors. On which principle we may say of a man who "has acted unjustly," that he "is in error»; and of one who "is in error," that he "has acted unjustly.» Again, of one who has stolen, both that has taken, [in way of diminution,] and that has ravaged [in exaggeration.] But the saying, as the Telephus of Euripides does, "that he lords it o'er the oars, and landing in Mysia," etc., is out of taste; for the expression, "lording it o'er," is above the dignity of the subject; [the rhetorical artifice] then, is not palmed off. There will also be a fault in the syllables, unless they are significant of a grateful sound; for instance, Dionysius, surnamed Chalcous, in his elegies, calls poetry, "the clangor of Calliope," because both are vocal sounds; the metaphor, however, is a paltry one, and couched in uncouth expressions.

Again, our metaphors should not be farfetched; but we should make the transfer, on the principle of assigning names out of the number of kindred objects, and such as are the same in species, to objects which are unnamed, of which, however, it is clear, simultaneously with their being uttered, that they are akin, as in that approved enigma,

A man I once beheld, [and wondering view'd,]
Who, on another, brass with fire had glued.*
- Twining.

for the operation is undesignated by any name, and both are species of attaching; wherefore the writer called the application of the cupping instrument, a gluing. And, generally speaking, it is possible out of neatly constructed enigmas to extract excellent metaphors: because it is on the principles of metaphor that men construct enigmas; so that it is evident that [if the enigma be a good one] the metaphor has been properly borrowed.

The transfer also should be made from objects which are beautiful; beauty, how. ever, of words consists, as Licymnius observes, in the sound or in the idea conveyed; as does also their inelegance. And there is, moreover, a third, which does away the sophistical doctrine; since it is not the fact, as Bryso argues, "that no one speaks inelegantly, if, indeed, the using one expression instead of another carries with it the same meaning ": for this is a fallacy; because some words are nearer in their ordinary acceptations, more assimilated, and have more peculiar force of setting the object before the eyes than others. And what is more, one word represents the object under different circumstances from another; so that we may even on this principle lay it down that one word has more or less of beauty and inelegance than another; for although both words, [at the same time,] express [properties which are] beautiful, as well as such as are inelegant; yet they either express them not qua they are beautiful, or not qua they are inelegant; or granting they do, yet they express them, the one in a greater, the other in a less degree. But we are to deduce our metaphors from these sources;— from such as are beautiful either in sound, in meaning, or [in the image they present] to the sight, or any other sense. And there is a difference, in the saying, for instance, "the rosy-fingered Aurora,» rather than "the purple-fingered," or, what is still worse, "the crimson-fingered.»

Also, in the case of epithets, it is very possible to derive one's epithets from a degrading or disgraceful view of the case; for instance, "the murderer of his mother": and we may derive them from a view on the better side; as, "the avenger of his father." And Simonides, when the victor in a race by mules offered him a

* A reference to the operation of "cupping."

trifling present, was not disposed to write, as though feeling hurt at writing on demiasses; when, however, he offered a sufficient present, he composed the poem

Hail! Daughters of the generous Horse,
That skim, like wind, along the course, etc.

- Harris.

and yet they were daughters of asses as well. Again, it is possible to express the selfsame thing diminutively. And it is the employment of diminutives which renders both good and evil less; just as Aristophanes jests in "The Babylonians"; using, instead of gold, "a tiny piece of gold"; instead of "a garment," "a little garment"; instead of "reproach,» «puny reproach"; and instead of "sickness,» «slight indisposition. We ought, however, to be careful, and always keep to the mean in both cases.

Style will possess the quality of being in good taste, if it be expressive at once of feeling and character, and in proportion to the subject-matter. This proportion, however, is preserved, provided the style be neither careless on questions of dignity, nor dignified on such as are mean: neither to a mean word let ornament be superadded; otherwise it appears mere burlesque.

But [the style] expressive of feeling, supposing the case be one of assault, is the style of a man in a passion; if, however, it be one of loathsomeness and impiety, the expressing yourself with disgust and painful caution; if, however, the case demand praise, with exultation; if pity, with submission; and so on in the other cases. And a style which is appropriate, moreover, invests the subject with persuasive efficacy. For the mind is cheated into a persuasion, that the orator is speaking with sincerity, because under such circumstances men stand affected in that manner. So that people suppose things to be even as the speaker states them, what though, in reality, they are not: and the hearer has a kindred feeling with the orator, who expresses himself feelingly, even should he say nothing to the purpose; availing themselves of which, may bear down their hearers in the storm of passion.

T

THE PARTS AND ARRANGEMENT OF A SPEECH

HE parts of a speech are two; for it is necessary to state the case about which it is, and to prove it. Wherefore for one, after stating, not to prove it, or to proceed to prove it without a previous statement, is out of the question: for whoever proves, proves something; and he who makes a previous statement makes such statement with a view to proving it subsequently. And of these parts, the one is the statement, the other the proof; just as though one were to make a division into problem and demonstration. But the divisions which they now usually make are ridiculous; for narration is a kind of peculiarity to judicial speeches alone; for how can there, in demonstrative and deliberative speeches, be any narration such as they speak of, or any reply, confutation of an adversary, or any peroration of points selected for display of character?

But exordium, contrast of argument, and recapitulation, do then only occur in deliberative speeches when an altercation happens; for, considered as accusation and defense, they frequently [admit these branches], but not in their character of a piece of advice. But the peroration, moreover, is not an essential of every judicial; for instance, if the speech be a short one, or the case easy to be remembered. For it is usual to detract only from what is prolix. The necessary divisions, then, are the statement and the proof.

1

The essential divisions then are these; but the greatest number are, exordium, statement, proof, peroration. The confutation of an adversary belongs to the proof; and the contrast of arguments is an amplification of one's own, so as to be a kind of branch of the proof; for one who does this proves something: but not so either exordium or peroration; but [the latter] refreshes the recollection.

But should one draw distinctions with regard to these, that will be the case which the followers of Theodorus used to do, there will be a narration distinct from post-narration, and pre-narration, together with refutation, and post-refutation. But the writer should affix a title only after marking out a distinct species and difference, otherwise it becomes mere emptiness and trifling; just like Licymnius, who in his treatise gives the titles, irruption-digression — ramifications, etc.

N°

OF THE EXORDIUM

ow the exordium is the commencement of the speech; which in poetry is the prologue, and in the performances on the pipe, the prelude: for these are all commencements, and, as it were, an opening of the way for what is to succeed.

The prelude, then, corresponds to the exordium of demonstrative speeches; for the performers on the pipe, using as a prelude any piece whatever which they are able to execute with skill, connect the whole by an inserted passage: and so in demonstrative speeches ought we to write; for the speaker ought, after stating whatever he lists, straightway to employ the insertion, and link it [to the body of the speech]. Which, indeed, all do, having as their model the exordium of the Helen of Isocrates: for there exists no very near connection between Helen and the artifices of sophists. At the same time, if the exordium be out of the way of the subject, there is this advantage, that the whole speech is not of one uniform character. But the exordia of demonstrative speeches are derived from praise, or from blame (like Gorgias in the Olympic oration,—«Men worthy, O Greeks, of admiration among many »; for he is eulogizing those who instituted the general assemblies: Isocrates, however, blames them, "because they distinguish by prizes the excellencies of person, while for those who are wise they propose no reward"); and thirdly from suggesting advice; for instance, "— because it is fitting to honor the good," on that account [the orator] himself also speaks the praises of Aristides, or such characters as neither enjoy reputation, nor are worthless, but as many as, though they be excellent persons, are obscure; just as was Paris, the son of Priam: for thus the orator conveys advice. Again [we may borrow demonstrative exordia] from those proper to judicial rhetoric, i. e., from appeals to the auditor, in case the speech be respecting any thing revolting to opinion, or difficult, or already noised abroad among many, so as to obtain his pardon: as Chorilus begins, "Now after everything has become public.»

The exordia, then, of demonstrative rhetoric arise from these sources,- from praise, blame, exhortation, dissuasion, and appeals to the hearers. The inserted connective clauses may be either foreign or appropriate to the subject.

With regard to the exordia of judicial rhetoric, we must assume that they are equivalent to the opening scenes of dramas, and the exordia of epic poems; for the commencement of dithyrambic poetry resembles demonstrative exordia,-"on account of thee, thy gifts, thy spoils." But in the drama, and in epic poetry, the commencement is an intimation of the subject, that the hearer may foresee what the story is about, and that his mind may not be in suspense; for whatever is indeterminate

bewilders us. He then who puts, as it were, into the hand the beginning of the clew, causes him who holds it to follow on the story. On this account we have,

"Sing, muse, the wrath," etc.

"The man, O muse, resound," etc.

"This too declare; from Asia's coasts afar,

How upon Europe burst the mighty war."

For

And the tragedians give some insight into the plot of the drama, if not forthwith, as Euripides does, yet they give it somewhere at least in the opening scene; just as also does Sophocles: -"Polybus was my father!» And comedy in the same way. The most necessary business of the exordium, and this is peculiar to it, is to throw some light on the end for the sake of which the speech is made. which very reason, if this be evident, and the case a brief one, we need not employ an exordium. The other species which speakers employ are correctives, and general: these are, however, deduced from 1. The speaker himself; 2. his hearer; 3. the subject; 4. and from the adversary. Everything whatsoever which refers to the doing away or the casting an aspersion of character has a relation to oneself or the adversary. But these things are not done exactly in the same way: for by one speaking on a defense, whatever tends to aspersion of character should be put first; but by one who is laying an accusation, in his peroration. And the reason why is not indistinct; for it is necessary that one who is making a defense, when he is about to introduce himself, should sweep away every stumbling-block; so that the prepossession against you must first be removed: by him, however, who raises the unfavorable impression, let it be raised in winding up, in order that the judges may the rather recollect it.

The correctives, however, which refer to the hearer, are drawn out of conciliating his good-will, and inflaming him with anger, and occasionally from attracting his attention, or the reverse; for it is not at all times convenient to render him attentive, for which reason many endeavor to induce them to laughter. But all these will conduce to tractability [on the judge's part], if one wishes it, as does also the showing oneself a person of character; for to such do people the rather give heed. But men are attentive to objects of importance, of a peculiar description, or deserving admiration, or pleasing. Hence we ought to throw in a hint that the speech is concerning subjects of this nature. But if you would have them not attentive, hint that the matter is trifling, concerns them not, or is disgusting. But it ought not to escape our observation, that the whole of this is foreign to the subject; for they are addressed to a hearer of sorry taste, and one who lends an ear to points foreign to the subject; for if the hearer be not of this character, there is no need of exordium, except so far as to state the matter summarily, that, like a body, it may have a head.

Again, the business of exciting attention is common to all the divisions of a speech, wherever it may be necessary; for the audience relax their attention anywhere rather than at the beginning. For which reason it is ridiculous to range this head at the beginning, when more particularly every one is at the summit of attention. So that, whenever it is convenient, we may use the formulary, “Lend me your whole attention, for the question does not affect me any more than yourselves"; and this one,-"for I will relate to you a thing so strange, so wonderful, as you never yet heard." But this is just what Prodicus says he used to do,-"whenever the audience happen to nod, to insert, by the bye, a display of his pentecontadrachmial demonstration." But that these things are referred to the hearer not in