front solely to increase the rigidity of the carriage-frame. A pair of horseshafts b, are bolted upon the frame, the nigh-side shaft being laid upon the siderail, and the other at the usual distance, to afford space for a horse to travel. A cast-iron bracket is appended by bolting to each side-rail: one of these is seen at c; its eye or centre descends to a distance of 8 inches below the bottom of the rail; an axle of 2 inches square extends between, and is supported in the eye of the bracket in which it turns upon its journals; this axle carries the two pressing-wheels d d, which are fitted to turn with the axle, but are moveable in the transverse direction, and provided with the means of being fixed at any desired distance apart, though 9 to 10 inches is the usual space. The axle carries also the light carriage-wheel e, of 2 feet 10 inches diameter, which may be placed either outside or inside of the carriage-frame, and is usually made of cast-iron, turning upon the axle, this being requisite for the more convenient turning round of the machine. The off-side shaft b, having but an imperfect connection to the carriage-frame, is supported by the iron stay-rod f; and two iron-scrapers g, are attached to the hind bar for the purpose of throwing off any soil that may adhere to the wheels. Fig. 382, is an edge-view of the two pressing-wheels detached from the carriage, in which a a is the axle broken off, b b are the two pressing-wheels as they appear edgeways; they are 2 feet 10 inches of extreme diameter, and their breadth 5 inches, their weight being about 2 cwt. each; the rim or periphery of the wheel is sloped off on both sides to an angle of about 70°, forming two opposite conical frusta, but a cylindrical band is left in the middle of about 1 inches in breadth. The pressingwheels are held at the required distance by the square collars ccc fitting round the axle and sliding upon it to the proposed distance apart, where they are fixed by the pinching-screws ССС. dd represents a transverse section of ground undergoing the pressing process; the shaded part of the section exhibits the state of a soft loose soil when pressed by the roller, and the dotted lines ef, ef, that of newly ploughed lea undergoing the operation of consolidation.

b

Fig. 382.

M

EDGE VIEW OF THE PRESSING-WHEELS,

(2258.) As explained in the text above, and with reference again to fig. 381, the pressing-wheels are to be understood as running always upon the last turned up furrows but one; while the carriage-wheel runs always upon the solid land, where the horse also walks, the shafts being placed at that side. But the presser is now being more advantageously used as to time, in the consolidation of soft soils, by being constructed with four, six, or more pressing-wheels; and in this form the carriage-wheel is not required. In using the presser of this construction, the field must be ploughed for the seed-furrow all over, either entirely or in part, before the pressing is begun; and the field is regularly gone over by the presser, which, from its now increased weight, will require two horses. In this form, with six pressing-wheels, and with the two horses, the machine will press-roll from eight to nine acres in a day. There remains to be observed, in regard to the last form of the machine, that, in order to secure facility of

turning about, the wheels must either be all set upon a round axle, or they must be set upon an axle in two lengths, if it is continued of a square form ; and there is consequently required a middle bearing for the meeting-ends of the axle. For this purpose, a third bracket is appended to the middle rail of the frame, fig. 381. I have found both of these modes of construction perfectly suitable in practice; and the entire weight of the six-wheel rollers amounts to about 12 or 13 cwt. The price of the two-wheeled presser is L.6, 10s.; and for each additional wheel, with its mounting, L.1, 12s.

(2259.) The common Land-Roller is an implement of great simplicity of construction, the acting part of it being a cylinder of wood, of stone, or of metal, and in many cases its only appendage is a rectangular frame of wood, consisting of two strong end-bars, selected for having a curvature to keep clear of the ground. In these the gudgeons of the roller are borne, and which are connected by two transverse rails, to one of which the horses are yoked. Simple as this implement appears, there is hardly an article of the establishment in which the farmer is more liable to fall into error in his selection. From the nature of its action, and its intended effects on the soil, there are two elements that should be particularly kept in view-weight and diameter of the cylinder. By the former alone can the desired effects be produced in the highest degree, but these will be always modified by the diameter. Thus, a cylinder of any given weight will produce a greater pulverizing effect if its diameter is one foot, than the same weight would produce if the diameter were two feet; but then the one of lesser diameter will be much worse to draw; hence it becomes necessary to choose a mean of these opposing principles. In doing this, the material of the cylinder comes to be considered. In the first place, wood, which is frequently employed for the formation of land-rollers, may be considered as least adapted of all materials for the purpose; its deficiency of weight and liability to decay renders it the most objectionable of all others. Second, stone, though not deficient in weight, possesses one marked disadvantage, liability to fracture; this of itself is sufficient to place stone rollers in a doubtful position as to fitness. This brings us to cast-iron, which is undoubtedly the most appropriate of all materials for this purpose. It is unnecessary here to enter into the inquiry as to the most advantageous diameter for a land-roller; the subject has already been elaborately discussed:* let it suffice to say, that experience has proved that a diameter of 2 feet is, under any circumstances, the one that will produce the best effects with a minimum of labour from the animals of draught; the weight being of course proportioned to the force usually applied, which is in general two horses. The weight of roller, including frame corresponding to this, is from 12 to 15 cwt.; but it is better that the roller itself be rather under the weight, and that the carriage be fitted up with a box, in which a loading of stones can be stowed, to bring the machine up to any desired weight. In a large and heavy roller, in one entire cylinder, the inconvenience of turning at the headlands is very considerable, and has given rise to the improvement of having the cylinder in two lengths; this, with a properly constructed carriage, produces the land-roller in its most perfect form.

(2260.) Fig. 383 is a perspective of the land-roller constructed on the foregoing principles. aa is the carriage-frame, consisting of two semicircular ends of cast-iron, connected by two transverse bars of hard wood, and these last are

* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. i. P. 700.

crossed by the horse-shafts, b. The cylinder c is in two lengths of 3 feet to 3 feet 3 inches each, and 2 feet in diameter; the thickness of the metal is from of an inch to 1 inch, according to the weight required; and each half length of the cylinder has a cross fitted into each end, through the centres of which the axle passes. The axle, in consequence of the cylinder being in two lengths, requires to be of considerable strength, usually 24 inches diameter, and of mal

leable iron; upon this the two sections of the cylinder revolves freely, and the extremities of the axle are supported in bushes formed in the lower part of the semicircular end-frames. Two iron stay-rods pass from the end frames to the shafts as an additional support to the latter. The price of the land-roller, fitted up as here represented and described, is, according to weight, from L.10 to L.14.

50. OF SOWING BEANS, PEASE, TARES, LUCERN, SAINTFOIN, FLAX, AND HEMP.

"Go plow in the stubble, for now is the season

For sowing of fetches, of beanes, and of peason."

TUSSER.

(2261.) The next field-labour performed in spring, with the view of reaping a crop in the ensuing harvest, is the preparation of the land for the sowing of beans; not that the culture of this crop is general, for beans are not and cannot profitably be cultivated on every species of soil; they requiring the heavier and deeper class of soils, usually termed clays and clay-loams. Indeed, their culture was wont to be confined to the heavier sorts of clay; but now the mellower loams are made to bear

that crop, and a still lighter class is sometimes devoted to it, assisted by the aid of manure. Beans may be raised on strong soils without manure, on light they cannot be to any advantage without.

(2262.) The particular culture practised for raising beans is not dependent on the nature of the soil, but is meant to suit the nature of that plant's growth, and the state of the soil in reference to cleanliness. From the structure of the plant, which bears fruit-pods on its stem near the ground as well as at the top, it is obvious that it should have both light and air; and its leaves being situate near the top, and its stem comparatively left bare of them, plenty of room near the ground is afforded to wild plants to grow in company with it. The plant possessing these properties, it is obvious that unless air is admitted to it, and opportunity afforded for removing weeds from it, it will not grow with that luxuriance which its nature would lead us to expect, if placed in favourable circumstances.

(2263.) Now, there is only one way by which both these objects can be secured to the plant, which is, to place it in rows or drills. The air will then reach both sides of every row; and if the rows are placed so far asunder as to allow weeds to be removed as they grow up, the two objects of constitutional vigour of plant and cleanliness of soil will be attained; and, accordingly, beans are now usually sown in drills.

(2264.) Years ago they were wont to be sown broad-cast; but though the plants may have stood in this position as far asunder as to afford to each sufficient air, it would almost be impracticable to destroy the weeds that might grow up amongst them, at least they would have as good a chance to grow as the beans themselves. It is true they might be pulled up by hand between the plants of beans, or destroyed by means of some small instrument, such as the hand-hoe, with which you shall become acquainted by-and-by; but such a mode of extirpating weeds several times in a season would not only be tedious but expensive, compared to the labour of the horse, by any instrument suited to his mode of working. There are farmers, however, who still sow beans broadcast, though the reason for persisting in the practice is not very obvious, even were the land as clean as not to contain a single weed; still the crop, being dis posed in rows, would not necessarily encourage weeds to grow, while it would certainly allow more light and air to the plants than the broad-cast method. Be the reasons of the preference for sowing beans broad-cast what they may, the practice is now, compared to the drill-method, very limited.

(2265.) The place which beans occupy in the rotation or course of crops, is not arbitrary; and no crop can be so treated that is cultivated

in accordance with a predetermined system. They are considered a preparatory crop-though all crops that bear seed to perfection must be exhausters of the soil-because they allow the soil beside them to be worked during a considerable portion of the season; and, in practice, it is found they form an excellent preparation of the soil for wheat.

(2266.) For this reason, beans are raised upon stubble-land that has no grass amongst it, and that stubble may be of wheat or oats. In England, beans are frequently raised on ploughed lea, on which they will grow fully better than on bare stubble-land, because they derive nourishment from the decay of the grass-plants inverted under the soil by the act of ploughing, figs. 105 and 108; but such a course of cropping is objectionable, because it brings two preparatory crops, grass and beans, in succession, whereas a preparatory crop should both follow and precede one that is of an opposite character, such as wheat, barley, or oats. The reasons for following particular courses of crops, you shall know after you have been, in the first instance, made acquainted with the nature of the crops themselves.

(2267.) With these preliminary observations on the culture of a drilled crop, let us proceed to the practical culture of beans. If you look at figs. 140 and 141, in the various modes of ploughing ridges, you will find that the winter-furrows given to land of strong character are cleav ing down without and with gore-furrows. The gore-furrows keep the land dry all winter, and it is as good a device for the purpose as is known; and if beans are desired to be raised-for it is not absolutely necessary to raise them in pursuance of any rotation unless you pleasethe stubble-land which is to be appropriated to their culture would best be ploughed in autumn or winter, as in fig. 141. Suppose, then, you find the land in spring cloven down with gore-furrows, the first operation is to harrow down the furrow-slices across the ridges, in doing which, the land being strong, and lying in a rough state, the harrows will take a firm hold of it, and tear it to pieces in a contrary direction from what it had been cut by the plough in winter; and the immediate effect will be, the filling up of the open-furrow b, fig. 141, and also of the gore-furrows a a; the land, in fact, will be brought down nearly to a flat state. If the land, however, has become very much consolidated in winter, a crossharrowing will have little effect. It should, in that case, rather be harrowed along the furrows, and even that may prove of little service; seeing which, harrowing may altogether be desisted from. If the land is pretty dry, early as the season yet is, being most likely still in February, it can be harrowed well; but should it not be so dry as to bear the horses without much sinking, it had better be let alone for a few days, or even