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'He is neither a learned man, nor an interesting writer.' If he is not the one, he is not the other.

Adversative co-ordination is expressed by but, or yet. It implies that the one proposition is contrary to what we should expect from the other; as, 'He is a learned man, but his writings are uninteresting;' 'His writings are uninteresting, yet he is a learned man.'

Since he is a learned man, we should expect his writings to be interesting, but (on the contrary) they are uninteresting.

Causative co-ordination is expressed by for. The second proposition states the cause of the truth of the first; as, 'As he is a learned man, we expected his writings to be interesting; for the works of learned men are generally so.'

1. ENLARGEMENT.

Exercise 25.

Complete the following compound sentences by the addition of co-ordinate clauses:

(a) Copulative.

(b) Alternative.

(c) Adversative.
(d) Causative.

EXAMPLE.

(c)

Every man desireth to live long

Every man desireth to live long, but no man would be old. The ground, in that dry season, was completely parched

(a)

The people could place no reliance on the king's

The ship has gone down as stated

(d)

word

His father was a sensible man

(c)

he may enter, he is sure to succeed

(b)

Whatever profession

(d)

One of the

(a)

allies was already in the field

The workmen will

(b)

not gain by their obstinacy

The genius making me

no answer, I turned about to address myself to him a second

(c)

time

(a)

Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride

His grief for the doctor is inconsolable

Every man knows what he is

(c)

(d)

The sentence was

(b)

unjust

2. CONTRACTION.

Exercise 26.

Contract the following sentences by omitting elements common to different clauses:→

EXAMPLES.

(a) Death does not spare the rich, and death does not forget the

poor.

Death neither spares the rich nor forgets the poor.

(b) Food is a necessary of life, and air is a necessary of life.

Food and air are necessaries of life.

Marlborough was a great general, but Marlborough was an unscrupulous man. Dryden was a great master of versification, and Pope was a great master of versification. The wall of China is evidence of a rich nation, and the wall of China is evidence of a populous nation, but the wall of China is also evidence of an effeminate nation. Men of courage defend themselves by the sword; but men of courage do not defend themselves by bulwarks. Diligence is a material duty of the young, and industry is a material duty of the young, and the proper improvement of time is a material duty of the young. Man sometimes mistakes his

best interests, and man sometimes-pursues trifles with all his energies, and man sometimes considers trifles as the principal object of desire in this fleeting world. We should use the organs of speech as the instruments of understanding; we should not use the organs of speech as the weapons of vice; we should not use the organs of speech as the tools of folly. No vice is more criminal than lying; no vice is meaner than lying; no vice is more ridiculous than lying.

3. CONVERSION.

A compound sentence may be converted into a simple sentence, by making one of two principal clauses subordinate.

Alternative co-ordination is convertible with conditional subordination; as,—

Compound.

He must either surrender himself, or submit to be outlawed.

Complex.

If he does not surrender himself, he must submit to be outlawed. If he does not wish to be outlawed, he must surrender himself. If he surrenders himself, he will not be outlawed.

Adversative co-ordination is convertible with concessive subordination; as,

Compound.

Fire is a good servant, but it is a bad master.

Complex.

Though fire is a good servant, it is a bad master.
Though fire is a bad master, it is a good servant.

Exercise 27.

Convert the following compound into complex sentences :—

The bookseller will either exchange the book, or he will return your money. He could not go with me, but he showed me the way. A soldier in time of peace is like a chimney in summer; but no man would pull down his chimney because it is the middle of June. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. Every man must either serve himself, or provide a substitute.

Blood, blood he found on every side,

But nowhere found his child.

Either every

This is madness, but there is method in it. murmurer at government must be prevented from diffusing discontent, or there can be no peace. No dreamer of innovations may propagate his projects, or there will be no settlement. Murder has no tongue, but it will speak with most miraculous organ. The garrison must either capitulate, or run the risk of starvation. A man may be locked up in steel, but his conscience must not be corrupted with injustice, or he will be as if he were naked.

4. SYNTHESIS.

Exercise 28.

Combine the following simple into compound sentences, using the verbs printed in italics as the verbs of the principal clauses:

EXAMPLE.

There buffaloes and other

The lion crouches in thickets.

animals come for food and drink. One of them is near.

He devours

Then he springs upon it with a furious bound. Seizing it in his strong claws, he tears it in pieces. sometimes flesh and bones together.

The lion crouches in thickets, where buffaloes and other animals come for food and drink; and, when one of them is near, he springs upon it with a furious bound; seizing it in his strong claws, he tears it in pieces, and devours sometimes flesh and bones together.

1. A young gentleman was at one of the academies in Paris. He ate nothing but soup and dry bread. He drank only water.

2. The governor of the institution attributed this singularity to excess of devotion. He reproved his pupil. He endeavoured to persuade him to alter his resolution.

3. He found, however, that his remonstrances were ineffectual. He sent for the young gentleman again. He observed to him that such conduct was highly unbecoming. He observed to him that it was his duty to conform to the rules of the academy.

4. He then endeavoured to learn the reason of his pupil's conduct. The youth could not be prevailed upon to impart the secret. The governor threatened to send him back to

his family.

5. "Sir," said the young man at last, "in my father's house I eat nothing but black bread. I eat very little of that. Here I have good soup. Here I have excellent white bread. I might fare luxuriously. I cannot persuade myself to take anything else. I reflect on the situation of my father and mother."

6. Johnson invades authors like a monarch. His conduct would be theft in other poets. It is only victory in him.

7. History informs the understanding by the memory. Something will happen. It shows us the like revolutions of former times. History helps us to judge of the future by the past.

8. The pictures drawn in our minds are laid in fading colours. They need to be sometimes refreshed. Otherwise, they vanish; otherwise, they disappear.

9. The Laplander uses the milk of the reindeer for food.

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