a fresh factor in the history of architecture. The condition of Europe at that period was one of ripeness for a great change, the Gothic system, whether in architecture or in civilization regarded as a whole, may fairly be said to have culminated. Its latest works were tinged by the coming change, or showed signs of becoming stereotyped by the repetition of mechanical forms.

The new force was the belief that old Rome had been wiser and more experienced than the then existing period, and the result was the earnest study of every Classic fragment, whether of art or literature, that had been preserved or could be recovered. For some three centuries this belief held good, till by the opening up of Greece to travel, the tradition was modified by the admission of Grecian remains to an equal or supreme place, beside or above those of Rome.

This second phase had not, however, an equal success for divers reasons; a reaction was at hand in favour of mediæval ideals, whether in the church, art, or the State.

A conscious effort was then made-the most earnestly in England-to modify the current that had been flowing since the year 1500. Some of the results of this attempt may be traced by the student wise enough to follow up the clues indicated in our concluding pages. In acquainting himself with the buildings given in those lists, he may feel that few of the diverse elements of our complex civilization, at the beginning of the twentieth century, have failed to find some architectural expression.

GENERAL REFERENCE BOOKS.

ENCYCLOPÆDIAS, DICTIONARIES, ETC., AND WORKS NOT CHIEFLY CONCERNED WITH THE ILLUSTRATION OF A PARTICULAR PERIOD OR

COUNTRY.

N.B.-Lists of Reference Books for special periods and styles are given throughout the book.

"Architectural Association Sketch Book." Folio. 1867-1900.

Upwards of 28 vols. of this valuable publication have been issued since 1867. Each volume contains 72 plates, chiefly of measured drawings of English work.

Bosc (E.)." Dictionnaire raisonné d'Architecture." 4 vols., 4to. Paris, 1877-1880.

Brault (E.).—" Les Architects par leurs œuvres." 3 vols. Paris, 18921893.

D'Agincourt (S.).-"History of Art by its Monuments." Translated from the Italian by Owen Jones. Folio. 1847.

“Dictionary of Architecture, issued by the Architectural Publication Society." With Detached Essays and Illustrations. 6 vols., folio. 1848-1892. Durand (J. N. L.).—“ Parallèle des Edifices de tout genre." Paris, 1800. Fergusson (J.)." History of Architecture in all Countries." 5 vols., 1893, etc.

8vo.

Fletcher (B. F.)." The Influence of Material on Architecture." Imperial 8vo. 1897.

Gailhabaud (J.)-L'Architecture du V. au XVII. siècle." 5 vols., folio and 4to. Paris, 1869–1872.

Gailhabaud (J.)." Monuments Anciens et Modernes." 4 vols. 4to. Paris, 1850.

Gwilt (J.). "Encyclopædia of Architecture." 8vo. 1900.

"Handbuch der Architektur." Comprising a number of volumes upon the History and Practice of Architecture. Darmstadt.

Milizia (F.).--" Lives of Celebrated Architects." 2 vols., 8vo. 1826. Parker (J.).—“ Glossary of Terms used in Architecture." 3 vols., 8vo. 1850.

Perrot (G.) and Chipiez (C.)." History of Ancient Art." 12 vols., 8vo. 1883-1894.

Planat." Encyclopédie d'Architecture et de la Construction." II vols.

Paris.

"Royal Institute of British Architects' Transactions." 1853 et seq. Sturgis." A Dictionary of Architecture and Building." Vols. 1 and 2 4to. New York, 1901.

Vasari (G.).---“Lives of the most Eminent Painters, Sculptors and Architects." Edited by Blashfield. 4 vols., 8vo. 1897.

Viollet-le-Duc (E. C.).-" Dictionnaire de l'Architecture." 10 vols., 8vo. Paris, 1859.

Viollet-le-Duc.---“ Entretiens sur l'Architecture." 3 vols. Paris, 1863. There is an English translation by B. Bucknall, entitled "Lectures on Architecture." 2 vols., Svo. 1877-1881.

Weale (J.)." Dictionary of Terms used in Architecture." 12mo. 1891.

THE origins of architecture, although lost in the mists of antiquity, must have been connected intimately with the endeavours of man to provide for his physical wants. It has been truly said that protection from the inclemency of the seasons was the mother of architecture. According to Vitruvius, man in his primitive savage state began to imitate the nests of birds and the lairs of beasts, commencing with arbours of twigs covered with mud, then huts of dried turfs and branches. Other writers indicate three types of primitive dwellings-the caves or rocks for those occupied in hunting or fishing, the hut for the agriculturist, and the tent for those such as shepherds leading a pastoral or nomadic life.

Structures of the prehistoric period, although interesting for archæological reasons, have little or no architectural value, and will only be lightly touched upon.

The remains may be classified under

i. Monoliths, or single upright stones, also known as menhirs, a well-known example being that at Carnac, Brittany, which is 63 feet high, 14 feet in diameter, and weighs 260 tons.

ii. Dolmens (Daul, a table, and maen, a stone), consisting of

one large flat stone supported by upright stones. Examples near Maidstone and other places in England, Ireland, Northern France, the Channel Islands, and India.

iii. Cromlechs, or circles of stone, as at Stonehenge, Avebury (Wilts), and elsewhere, consisting of a series of upright stones arranged in a circle and supporting horizontal slabs.

iv. Tumuli. The burial mounds were probably prototypes of the Pyramids of Egypt and the beehive huts found in Wales, Cornwall, Ireland, etc. That at New Grange (Ireland) resembles somewhat the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenæ (No. 14).

v. Lake Dwellings, consisting of wooden huts supported on piles, and discovered in the lakes of Switzerland, Italy, and Ireland, and so placed for protection against attacks.

These primitive or prehistoric remains have little constructive sequence, and are merely indicated to show from what simple beginnings the noble art of architecture was evolved, although unfortunately the stages of the evolution cannot be traced, owing to the fact that the oldest existing monuments of any pretension, as in Egypt, belong to a high state of civilization.