RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. "New structures, that inordinately glow, By many a relic of the archetype Extant for wonder; every upstart church, That hoped to leave old temples in the lurch, That as a mundane shell, its world late born, GENERAL INTRODUCTION. THE causes which led to the re-introduction, or re-birth (Renaissance), of Classic Architecture in Europe at the beginning of the fifteenth century, are instructive, and must be grasped in order fully to understand so great a change. In this section we shall treat of the Renaissance movement as affecting the whole of Europe. I. INFLUENCES. 1. Geographical. The Renaissance movement, arising in Italy in the fifteenth century, spread from thence to France, Germany, and England, and over the whole of Western Europeover what had been, in fact, the Roman empire in the West. The Eastern empire did not come under its influence; in fact, the Greeks in the East, who had been the most civilized people in Europe, were now falling before the Turks. ii. Geological. The reader is referred to each country. iii. Climate. iv. Religion. The invention of printing, which aided the spread of knowledge, the spirit of inquiry, and the diffusion of freedom of thought, led, among the Teutonic races, to a desire to break away from Romish influence. This desire was originally fostered in England by Wycliffe (A.D. 1377), and by Martin Luther in Germany (A.D. 1517), in which countries Reformation in religion proceeded side by side with Renaissance in architecture This renewed vigour in thought and literature was accompanied by a fresh building era in northern Europe. In England, civil and domestic architecture received a special impulse from the diffusion among laymen of the wealth and lands of the monasteries dissolved by Henry VIII. In Italy, on the other hand, where the Reformation took no hold, and where comparatively few churches had been built in the Gothic manner during the Middle Ages, a revival of ecclesiastical architecture took place, and in every important town we find Renaissance churches, carried out on a grand scale and in a most complete manner. The Jesuits who headed the counterreformation carried the style into all parts, giving to it a special character of their own. v. Social and Political.-A new intellectual movement manifests itself sooner in literature than in architecture, and thus the former influences the public taste. Dante (1265-1321), Petrarch (1304-1374), and Boccaccio (1313-1375) aided in the spread of the newly-discovered classic literature, which caused a revolt against mediaval art. The subsequent fall of Constantinople in A.D. 1453 caused an influx of Greek scholars into Italy, whose learning was an important influence in an age which was ripe for a great intellectual change. Thus a revival of classical literature produced a desire for the revival of Roman architecture. Again, among the MSS. of Greek and Latin authors brought to light about this time, was Vitruvius' book of Architecture, written in B.C. 50, which was translated into Italian in A.D. 1521. Erasmus (1467--1536), one of the few Greek scholars of the period, worked hard to direct the public attention to the original text of the New Testament, and to the Greek classics, as a set-off to the writings of the schoolmen, whose authority had for so long borne an exclusive sway. Italian architecture was naturally the first to be affected, because the Gothic style had never taken a firm hold on the Italians, who had at hand the ancient Roman remains, such as the Pantheon, the Basilica of Maxentius, the Colosseum, the remains of the great baths, and the Roman fora. In Italy, therefore, where feudalism had never fully established itself, and where the municipalities had developed a spirit of municipal enterprise, practically a direct return was made to Roman forms. (Refer to each section of Renaissance architecture.) vi. Historical. We shall find that this section is exceedingly interesting. At the beginning of the sixteenth century there was a general grouping together of the smaller states into independent kingdoms, under powerful rulers, who governed with authority, and kept large standing armies. We find also that three great inventions came into being-gunpowder, which changed the whole method of warfare; the mariner's compass, which led to the discovery of the West Indies and South America, and the foundation of colonies by European states; and, lastly, printing, which favoured that stirring of men's minds which caused the reformation in religion, and the revival of learning. Copperplate engraving was discovered in the third quarter of the fifteenth century. Galileo (1564-1642) proved that the earth was not the centre of the visible universe, but merely a minute planet in the solar system. 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. The Renaissance of the fifteenth century in Italy, and of the sixteenth century in other parts of Western Europe, was a break in that orderly evolution of architecture which is based on the nature and necessities of materials. In place of such evolution we have the worship of style, that is, of the past results of the nature of materials as formulated into systems. Such results were worshipped for their own sake, and often to a great extent applied regardless of the materials of their execution. The main features in the style are the revival of the classic orders (Nos. 23, 220), viz., the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns or pilasters, with their entablature, which are often used decoratively, as the Romans used them, and at other times are constructive value Buildings designed for modern wants are clothed in the classic dress of ancient Rome. It must not be supposed, however, that in this development no advance was made. It is true that classic precedent was the basis, but column and pilaster either plain, fluted or panelled-with entablature and details, were applied in many novel and pleasing forms. System in their application was gradually evolved, and a style built up which has become the vernacular of all modern states. Italy, the headquarters of the new movement, in the fifteenth century possessed skilful jewellers and excellent medallists, and it was by their help that the Renaissance commenced and expanded. From their well-known good taste, architects consulted them, and often, indeed, were their pupils, as Ghiberti, Donatello, and Brunelleschi. Men, therefore, who were at once painters, sculptors, architects, silversmiths, jewellers, and goldsmiths, only looked, somewhat naturally, at the finished results as the goal to be aimed at, and were not troubled about the means to such an end. The development of the schools of painting also had their influence on architecture, and aided the tendency which caused structures to be looked upon as works of art, instead of being dependent mainly for their form and effect. on structural necessities. For the same reasons, the period may be looked on as the age of accessories, in which iron work, gold and silver work, tombs, monuments, altars, fonts, and fountains, were designed in great numbers, and, by the whim and fancifulness of the designer, gave a special character to the period. Architecture ceased to a certain extent to be subject to the considerations of use, becoming largely independent of constructive exigencies, and to a greater extent an art of free expression in which beauty of design was sought for. Speaking generally, there was an endeavour to reconcile the Gothic and the Roman method of construction, i.e., the body and the dress were one and the same thing constructively, because the architects of the period, attracted by the mere external appearance of ancient Roman art, but perceiving that this form was merely an envelope, continued in the matter of construction to a large extent to follow the traditions of the Middle Ages, which did not separate the structure from the decoration. Owing, therefore, to ignorance of Roman methods, the Roman manner of forming the main walling of concrete and casing it with marble, stone, or brick was not followed. In the Gothic period each stone was finished, moulded, and sculptured in the workshops before being laid- a method which produced skilful and intelligent masons and stone dressers, and obliged the sculptor to make the decoration suit each piece of stone. In the Renaissance period the new mouldings and carvings could be executed with more exactitude and less expense in situ, thenceforward the necessity of making the jointing accord with the various members of the architecture was no longer imperiously felt, and this negligence often resulted in a want of harmony between the jointing and the architectural features. A building was, it will be observed, regarded rather as a picture with pleasing combinations of lines and masses than as a structure of utility, being often designed by men trained as painters, sculptors, or goldsmiths. Such structures often have a princely dignity, as in many of the Roman palaces (No. 158), where the column, pilaster, frieze, and cornice are employed as elements of composition with special regard for the artistic result and with considerable originality. The wide and narrow spacing of the pilasters in the Palazza Giraud is a novel form (No. 156). It would be a great mistake, therefore, to state that Renaissance architecture was solely imitative. New and delightful combinations of features were introduced, and architecture became to a great extent a personal art due to the fancy of the individual architect, many of whom founded schools of design, in which their principles were followed by their pupils and followers. In the decorative detail, also, an advance may be noted. In metal work the bronze baptistery gates at Florence were won in competition by the sculptor Ghiberti, in 1404, and are the finest examples of a class of work for which these craftsmenarchitects were famous. These accessories of architecture were erected, or added to many old buildings, both in Italy and elsewhere. The Renaissance architects followed the Byzantine treatment of the Dome, but increased it in importance by lifting it boldly from its substructure and placing it on a "drum," in which are placed the windows, thus making it a great external dominating feature (Nos. 163, 173, 213). Likewise, they were the first to introduce as an architectural "motif" the wall of massive rusticated masonry with arched openings, as in the Palazzo Riccardi, etc. (Nos. 152 and 153). In these buildings the wall is frankly treated as architecture against mere building, and is in no way imitative. Renaissance Vaulting. In the beginning of the fifteenth century the Gothic principles of ribbed vaulting were abandoned, giving place to the revival of the classic method of solid semicircular vaulting (see page 80). This type of vaulting was much used in the halls, passages, and staircases to Renaissance palaces and churches, and was besides frequently built of wooden framing, plastered and painted with coloured decoration. It was often of remarkable richness and beauty, as at the Vatican palace by Raphael. In cases of cross-vaulting with narrow and wide spans, it appears that the groins were now formed by means of "ordinates" (No. 83 E), with elliptical soffites, groins forming a straight line on plan instead of the wavy line formed by the intersection of a semicircular vault with one stilted above its springing. Note. Having now taken a rapid survey of the causes which led to the revival of classical architecture throughout Europe, and before proceeding especially to consider the development in each country, we may compare a few of the more prominent characteristics of the style with the treatment which obtained in Gothic architecture. |