them that we learn most of what we know of Egyptian history (No. 9 P). The Egyptians possessed great power of conventionalizing natural objects such as the lotus plant, the symbol of the overflowing Nile (hence fertility or abundance), the palm, and others, which were copied or used as the motif for a design, being treated by the artists in a way suitable to the material in which they were working. The distinguishing, or essential, features of the natural object, or its class, thus passed by a process of idealizing into forms adapted for ornamentation. 5. REFERENCE BOOKS. Champollion (J. F., le jeune).—"Monuments de l'Égypte et de la Nubie." 6 vols., folio. Paris, 1845. "Description de l'Égypte" (known as “Napoleon's Egypt"). 23 vols., large folio. Paris, 1809-1822. Erman (A.).—“Life in Ancient Egypt." 8vo. 1894. Lepsius (R.).— Denkmaeler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien." 12 vols., large folio, and I vol. text. Berlin, 1849-1859. Maspero (G.).—"The Dawn of Civilization: Egypt and Chaldæa.” 8vo. 1897. Perrot and Chipiez.-" History of Art in Ancient Egypt." 2 vols., 8vo. 1883. Petrie (W. N. F.).—"The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh." 4to. 1883. Petric." Ten Years Digging in Egypt." 8vo. 1892. Petrie." Egyptian Decorative Art." 8vo. 1895. Prisse d'Avennes (E.).—“Histoire de l'Art Egyptien." 2 vols., large folio, and text in 4to. Paris, 1879. Rawlinson, (G.).—" History of Ancient Egypt." 2 vols. 8vo. 1881. Smyth (C. Piazzi).—“ Life and Work at the Great Pyramid, 1865.” 3 vols., 8vo. Edinburgh, 1867. Publications of the "Archæological Survey of Egypt" and the "Egypt Exploration Fund.” Ebers (G.)." An Egyptian Princess." (Historical Novel.) Visit the Egyptian Court at the Crystal Palace; also study the various kinds of capitals at the British Museum. The latter should be visited thoroughly, as it contains a most complete collection of Egyptian antiquities, which will give the student a more thorough knowledge of the style than the reading of many books, and in an infinitely shorter space of time. i. Geographical.-On referring to the map (No. 10) it will be seen that the buildings, which we propose to discuss very shortly, are situated in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, a country which may be styled the cradle and tomb of nations and empires. The plain of Mesopotamia, once the seat of a high civilization, was irrigated from the Euphrates and Tigris, by innumerable canals, and was highly cultivated, supporting a huge population round Nineveh and Babylon. Now it has vegetation only in the wet season. The earliest buildings of which we have knowledge were erected at the mouth of the great rivers draining the country. In this respect it compares with Egypt (No. 2), where the Pyramids and earlier work were at Cairo, towards the mouth of the Nile, and the later work at Philæ, far inland. In Western Asiatic architecture the march of civilization spreads northwards from Babylon (the Gate of God) to Nineveh, while in Egyptian architecture it spread southward towards Edfou and Philæ, but in both cases it developed from the sea inland. ii. Geological. The whole district of Chaldæa or Lower Mesopotamia is alluvial, being formed of the thick mud or clay deposited by the two rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates. This soil, containing no stone and bearing no trees, can be made into bricks, which thus became the building material. "Kiln dried bricks, which were expensive, were only used for the facing, the general body of the walls being constructed of the ordinary sun-dried bricks. In addition, bricks seem to have been glazed or vitrified, and used in different colours as a facing. As a cementing material, bitumen or pitch seems to have been used, applied in a heated state. It was obtained from bitumen springs found in the district, as at Is, on the Euphrates. Mortar, made of calcareous earth, was used in the latest times. In Assyria, where stone was not scarce, the walls were also faced, on the inside and out, with alabaster or limestone slabs, ou which were carved the bas-reliefs or inscriptions, which are so important from an historical point of view. iii. Climate. The unhealthy exhalations from the vast swamps in Chaldæa, and the swarms of aggressive and venomous insects which infest the entire region during the long summer, rendered elevated positions for the towns and palaces not only desirable, but almost essential. Moreover, during the rainy season torrents fall for weeks at a time. Persia is for the most part a high tableland and has been described as a country of sunshine, gardens, and deserts, with a climate of extremes. iv. Religion. Religion was not favourable to constructive art among the Persians. The people were worshippers of the heavenly bodies, and of the powers of nature, such as the wind, thunder, the sun and the moon, etc. The number of omen tablets which have survived bear witness to their extreme superstition. They worshipped Ormuzd as god of light and good, under the symbol of fire, as opposed to Ahriman, the god of darkness, and promoter of evil. They had consequently no images, and they had also no temples, because sacrifices were conducted in the open air. The essential element was therefore wanting for the rise and development of constructive art. In later times, when Egypt and the Greek colonies of Asia Minor became subject to the Persians, Egyptian and Grecian artists were employed by the Persian kings. v. Social and Political. From what we know of their history, we judge that the Assyrians were a sturdy, warlike, and cruel people. In their battles, the conquering monarchs took thousands of prisoners, and these were employed in raising the enormous mounds mentioned hereafter. It has been calculated by Rawlinson, that the great mound of Koyunjik-which represents the palaces of Nineveh itself-would require the united exertions of 10,000 men for twelve years to raise the mound only, after which the palace would have to be built. The Assyrian sculptures in alabaster exhibit considerable technical skill and refinement, while the repoussé pattern work on bronze bowls, shields, and gate fittings is also notable. The "cuneiform" or arrow-headed inscriptions consist of groups of strokes in the form of wedges, placed upright and horizontally, hence the name. These characters were impressed on clay tablets or cylinders, while still moist, with a triangular ended instrument of wood, bone, or metal. Libraries of these strange MSS. were formed on a large scale, and by their translation our knowledge has been acquired. The Persian astronomer-poet, Omar Khayyám, in his writings, indicates the national love of beauty and the influence exerted by environment and climate. vi. Historical. From the study of Assyrian history we can glean certain facts which considerably assist us in forming our divisions of the periods. The earliest Babylonian king mentioned in the cuneiform inscriptions was Eannadu, who reigned B.C. 4500. The empire thus founded gradually extended its dominions to the north, following the course of the great river Tigris. In B.C. 1700 Assyria, the northern part of the early Babylonian empire, asserted her independence and became the great power of Western Asia. Of the Assyrian kings, among the more celebrated was Sargon (B.C. 722-705), who erected the great palace at Khorsabad. This Sargon was the first Assyrian king who came in contact with the Egyptian army, then in alliance with the Philistines, a combination which he defeated. The Assyrians conquered and occupied Egypt in B.C. 672, sacking the ancient city of Thebes in B.C. 666. Egypt, however, finally shook herself free from the Assyrian yoke. The destruction of Nineveh took place in B.C. 609, and the great Assyrian kingdom was divided among its conquerors, Assyria being handed over to the Medes. Babylon then took the leading place until it was finally conquered by the Persian general Cyrus, in B.C. 539, from which date it remained under |