portion of a cube block with rounded corners, over which was placed a deep abacus, or block, sometimes called a "dosseret," representing the expiring classic architrave, and which aided in supporting the springing of the arch, naturally larger in area than the shaft of the column. An altered shape of capital was required, as an arch instead of a beam had to be supported, for which a convex form was better adapted. The surfaces of these capitals were carved with incised foliage of sharp outline, having drilled eyes as a relief (No. 60), between the springings of each leaf. Several other types are shown in No. 61.

Columns were always subordinate features, and often only introduced to support galleries, etc., the massive piers alone supporting the superstructure.

F. Mouldings.-Internally these were subordinate to the decorative treatment in marbles and mosaic. Flat splays, enriched by incised or low relief ornamentation, are used. Externally the simple treatment of the elevations in flat expanses of brickwork, etc., did not leave the same scope for mouldings as in other styles.

G. Ornament is the most interesting feature in the style; the walls being lined with costly marbles, and with figures in which the peacock (as the emblem of immortal life), continually occurs in glass mosaic (No. 56), in contrast to the painted frescoes which were more generally adopted in western Romanesque churches.

Mosaic was used in a broad way as a complete lining to a rough carcass. Architectural lines are replaced by decorative bands in the mosaic, worked on rounded angles. One surface melts into another as the mosaic sheet creeps from wall, arch, and pendentive up to the dome. The gold of the background is carried into the figures, thus unity of surface is always maintained.

In carving, Greek, rather than Roman precedent, was followed, due no doubt to the Greek origin of the artizans. It was executed in low relief, and effect was obtained by sinking portions only of the surfaces. In fact, the drill instead of the chisel was adopted by the Byzantine masons, and is responsible for the character of the carving (No. 60). The acanthus leaf, deeply channelled and adapted from Roman architecture, became more conventional, and has acute-pointed leaves, drilled at the several springings of the teeth with deep holes.

The great characteristic of Byzantine ornament as compared with the classical, is that the pattern is incised instead of seeming to be applied. The surface always remained flat, the pattern being cut into it without breaking its outline.

Grecian and Asiatic feeling strongly pervades Byzantine ornamentation. This is accounted for by the fact that

IMPOST CAPITAL FROM THE PORCH
OF S.SOPHIA CONSTANTINOPLE

WINDOW FROM THE GALLERY (GYNAECEUM) 5. SOPHIA CONSTANTIN PLE BYZANTINE ORNAMENT

Constantinople was a Greek city, and in close contact with the

East.

Note. A good general idea of the exterior of a church in this style is to be gained from the Greek Church in the Moscow Road, Bayswater, erected by Gilbert Scott. The mosaics and casts in the South Kensington Museum should also be inspected.

5. REFERENCE BOOKS.

Choisy (A.).—“L'Art de Bâtir chez les Byzantins." Folio. Paris, 1883. Didron (A. N.).—"Christian Iconography." 2 vols., 8vo. 1886. Knight (H. G.).—“ Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy." 2 vols., folio. 1842-1843.

Lethaby (W. R.) and Swainson (H.).—" Church of Sancta Sophia, Constantinople." 8vo. 1894.

Milligen (A. van).-" Byzantine Constantinople." 8vo. 1899.

"Saint Mark's, Venice." A large, elaborate and beautiful monograph in several vols., 4to and folio, published by Signor Ongania. Venice, 1881, etc.

Salzenburg (W.).—" Alt-Christliche Baudenkmale von Constantinople." 2 vols., folio and 4to. Berlin, 1854-1855.

Schultz (R. W.) and Barnsley (S. H.). "The Monastery of St. Luke of Stiris in Phocis." Folio. 1901.

Scott (Sir W.).-" Count Robert of Paris." (Historical Novel.)

Texier (C.) and Pullan (R. P.).—“ Byzantine Architecture." Folio. 1864.

BAGDAD

62.

ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE IN

EUROPE.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.1

I. INFLUENCES.

i. Geographical.--The style which grew up on the decay of the Roman empire, and which we know as Romanesque, was carried on throughout practically the whole of the Western empire--that is, in those countries which had been directly under the rule of Rome. The position of each country will be slightly touched upon under its own heading. The influence of Byzantine art brought from Byzantium through Ravenna also influenced the Italian Romanesque in Lombardy and Europe generally.

1 Before treating of the development of the style peculiar to each country, a general outline sketch is given.

ii. Geological.--In these early times a rough use of the material at hand characterizes the style in each country, and will be referred to under the same.

iii. Climate.--Local styles were favoured by the variations of climate north and south of the Alps. Refer to Rome in Classic and France and Germany in Romanesque sections.

iv. Religion. The Christian Church was striving to extend its boundaries in Northern Europe. It represented the civilizing and educating agency of the age. The erection of a church was often the foundation of a city. The monastic communities, with the encouragement and aid of Charlemagne, came into existence. The papacy had been rising to great power and influence, and, directed with skill, it rivalled or controlled such civil government as existed. As East and West drifted apart their architecture developed on opposing lines. Work done in Western Europe under Eastern influence has to be classed as Byzantine. The West looked to Rome at first until each country developed its own style. Religious enthusiasm prevailed, and was manifested in magnificent edifices. As evidencing the same zeal we should note that when the Turks overran Palestine, the loss of the Holy Places brought on the long warfare between the Christians of the West and the Mahometans of the East known as the Crusades (1096-1270).

Until the middle of the twelfth century science, letters, art and enlightenment generally were the monopoly of religious bodies, and pupils of monks afterwards became the designers of many of the great Gothic Cathedrals.

The feudal rank of bishops and abbots made them in some sense military chiefs, occasionally taking the field in person:" Schools attached to certain monasteries discharged to some extent the functions of universities, as those at St. Gall, Tours, and Rheims.

The aid rendered by monastic institutions to architecture was therefore important. Down to the thirteenth century, architecture was practised largely by the clergy and came to be regarded as a sacred science, as stated by Albert Lenoir in "l'Architecture Monastique." Dr. Jessop's "Daily Life of an English Monastery" is interesting as showing the life led by the monks, and may be studied with advantage. (For the typical plan of a monastery see page 192).

Among the chief monastic orders were the following:

(1.) The Benedictine order, founded in the South of Italy in the sixth century by St. Benedict, by whose decree architecture, painting, mosaic and all branches of art were taught. All the older monasteries in England belonged to this order, Canterbury being the chief establishment.

F.A.

L