PUNCTUATION.

THE following passage will show the importance of Punctuation:

" Hubert rode on his brother's horse being lame he did not reach home till midnight." As the words stand, they admit of several meanings. In reading the passage aloud, these different meanings are indicated by breaks or pauses. In writing or printing it, they are indicated by the insertion of points. It may be read and pointed in at least three ways:

1. Hubert rode on his brother's horse, being lame. He did not reach home till midnight. 2. Hubert rode on. His brother's horse being lame, he did not reach home till midnight. 3. Hubert rode on, his brother's horse being lame. He did not reach home till midnight.

The primary use of punctuation, therefore, is to prevent mistakes, and to make the meaning of what we write as plain as possible.

The above example shows that points are required to separate words that are to be kept apart in meaning. But while points thus disjoin the words between which they stand, they serve at the same time to conjoin the words that stand between them. Thus in No. 3, the comma (,) after "on" not only separates that word from "his brother's horse," but it also forces us to take together the words "his-brother's-horse-being-lame," as the expression of a single thought. This, then, is the double purpose of punctuation,—first to separate, and then to give distinctness to each of the separated parts. In ordinary cases, two points are sufficient for this purpose:The Period, to separate sentence from sentence;

The Comma, to separate the distinct parts of a sentence from each other. These are the points most frequently used, and some authors rarely use any others. But when a sentence is long, and complicated in structure, its meaning may be made clear by the use of the Semicolon (;) and the Colon (:).

For example, when a sentence consists of two or more great divisions, within which commas are used, it is desirable to separate the great divisions from each other by a different point; and for this purpose the semicolon is employed.

EXAMPLES. Sloth makes all things difficult, but Industry all easy; and he that riseth late must trot all day, and shall scarce overtake his business at night; while Laziness travels so slowly, that Poverty soon overtakes him.

There is a tide in the affairs of men,

Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune;

Omitted, all the voyage of their life

Is bound in shallows and in miseries.

In like manner, when parts of a division are separated by semicolons, the divisions themselves must be separated by a colon.

EXAMPLES.-If this life is unhappy, it is a burden to us which it is difficult to bear; if it is in every respect happy, it is dreadful to be deprived of it: so that, in either case, the result is the same; for we must exist in anxiety and apprehension,

Hear me for my cause; and be silent, that you may hear: believe me for mine honour; and have respect to mine honour, that you may believe: censure me in your wisdom; and awake your senses, that you may the better judge.

SPECIAL RULES.

1. Explanatory and parenthetical words are marked off from the rest of the sentence by commas.

EXAMPLES.-Shakespeare, the great dramatist, was born at Stratford-on-Avon, where he also died-History, moreover, is a very profitable study.

The effect of two commas in such cases is much the same as that of the parenthesis ( ). 2. When the explanation limits the word to which it belongs, or implies contrast, no commas should be used.

EXAMPLES.-Jonson the dramatist must not be confounded with Johnson the critic. -His library is rich in books which treat of the progress of the physical sciences.

3. A series of words of the same kind, whether single or in pairs, is divided by commas.

EXAMPLES.-Henry was kind, liberal, and forgiving.-He was kind and liberal, gentle and forgiving.

4. A sudden break in the structure of a sentence is indicated by a dash (—). EXAMPLE. If you had not come, I should have supposed-but why discuss this when you are here ?

5. When the original structure of the sentence is resumed, a second dash must be inserted.

EXAMPLE. The defects and faults of "Paradise Lost"—for faults and defects every work of man must have-it is the business of impartial criticism to discover.

6. The dash is used before an enumeration of particulars.

EXAMPLE-Napoleon sacrificed everything to his aim-money, troops, generals, even his own safety.

7. The dash is also used between two sentences which relate to different subjects, or which are addressed to different persons.

EXAMPLE

'King (to Hotspur). Send me your prisoners with the speediest means, Or you shall hear in such a kind from me

As will displease you. -My Lord Northumberland,

We license your departure with your son. —

Send us your prisoners, or you will hear of it.'

8. Each part of a direct quotation is enclosed between inverted commas. EXAMPLE." Reading," says Bacon, maketh a full man, conference a ready man, writing an exact man."

9. When a quotation forms an independent sentence, it is preceded by a colon.

EXAMPLE-When Preston had read the sentence of William's Declaration in which the spiritual peers were referred to, King James proceeded: "My lords, I do not believe one word of this. I am satisfied of your innocence; but I think it fit to let you know of what you are accused.'

In the above case the comma and dash are sometimes used.

EXAMPLE-How well the silent anguish of Macduff is conveyed to the reader by the friendly expostulation of Malcolm,-" What, man! ne'er pull your hat upon your brows."

10. When a quotation forms an independent paragraph, it is preceded by a colon and a dash.

EXAMPLE-Few men would envy the character which Cæsar gives of Cassius:"He loves no play,

As thou dost, Antony; he hears no music:
Seldom he smiles; and smiles in such a sort,
As if he mocked himself, and scorned his spirit
That could be moved to smile at anything."

The same rule applies to an enumeration of heads or classes.

EXAMPLE.

The following are the four principal seas of Europe:

1. The Baltic Sea.

2. The North Sea.

3. The Mediterranean Sea.
4. The Black Sea.

11. The interrogation (?) is used after questions; and the exclamation (!) after expressions of surprise or sorrow.

EXAMPLE. O shame! where is thy blush?

12. The parenthesis () is used to enclose explanatory words which do not belong to the grammatical structure of the sentence.

EXAMPLE.-Jamaica pepper (called also allspice) is the unripe berry of an evergreen shrub dried in the sun.

1. The king, surrounded by his courtiers, proceeded to the palace. We may, however, let that pass. Shakespeare the man is inseparable from Shakespeare the poet. It is impossible to describe his scorn, loathing, and contempt. A considerable part of his life has generally been spent in the capital, and the refinements of the capital follow him into the country.

2. Looking to the left, towards the gorge, we beheld six compact masses of infantry. The large, heavy, iron bar fell on him. The door of the cell was softly opened; and there lay Argyle on the bed, sleeping, in his irons, the placid sleep of infancy. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies in me; when I meet with the grief of parents upon a tombstone, my heart melts with compassion; when I see the tomb of the parents themselves, I consider the vanity of grieving for those whom we must quickly follow.

3. The boy, surrounded by his tormentors, was unable to escape. To tell the truth, I was not greatly struck by his appearance. The soul that sinneth, it shall die. High and low, rich and poor, young and old meet together. The integrity, gravity, and bravery of the Turks, form an exact contrast to the deceit, levity, and cowardice of the modern Greeks.

4. He remained in the land of his adoption, for many years, with great profit to himself. He was reserved, proud, and haughty. Where we now see a port crowded with shipping, and a market-place swarming with buyers and sellers, the waves then broke on a desolate beach; but a fragment of

*The teacher will dictate the sentences without giving the points, and require the pupils to insert them in their exercises.

the rock on which the deliverer stepped from his boat has been carefully preserved, and is set up as an object of public veneration in the centre of that busy wharf. It was broad day before the man arrived, and he found the work not even half performed.

5. In the midst of the most serene day of summer, the sky being clear and unclouded, a loud peal of thunder was distinctly heard, apparently in the west. He laboured patiently, earnestly, and laboriously. There was no reason, however, why I should refrain from seeing the person who had inconsiderately sent her to so great a distance, by night and alone; and, as it was not improbable that, if she found herself near home, she might take farewell of me, and deprive me of the opportunity, I avoided the most frequented ways, and took the most intricate. Be not too familiar with thy servants; at first it may beget love, but in the end it will breed contempt.

6. In a custom of such long standing, methinks, if the bishops had, in decency, been first sounded-but I am wading out of my depths. I might dilate on the difficulties which attended that undertaking-the temper of the people, the power, arts, and interests of the contrary party; but these are all invidious topics. Poetry-far from injuring society-is one of the great instruments of its refinement.

7. And now the bell-the bell she had so often heard, by night and day, and listened to with solemn pleasure, almost as to a living voice-rang its remorseless toll for her, so young, so beautiful, so good. When Phocion, the modest and gentle Phocion, was led to execution, he turned to one of his fellow-sufferers, who was lamenting his own hard fate: "Is it not glory enough for you," said he, "that you die with Phocion?" Ah me! how sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank!

8. Pleasure and terror are, indeed, the genuine sources of poetry; but poetical pleasure must be such as human imagination can at least conceive, and poetical terror such as human strength and fortitude may combat. The slaves of domestic tyranny may vainly exult in their national independence: but the Arab is personally free; and he enjoys, in some degree, the benefits of society, without forfeiting the prerogatives of nature.

9. There was, however,-as in all human affairs there is,-in the midst of this joy something to exercise the patience of these worthy gentlemen, and to try the long-suffering of their faith. "Examine now," said he, "this sea that is bounded with darkness at both ends, and tell me what thou discoverest in it.”—“I see a bridge," said I, "standing in the midst of the tide."-"The bridge thou seest," said he, "is human life; consider it attentively." O king, live for ever! Come forth! O ye children of gladness, come!

10. Cromwell died on the 3rd of September 1658-the anniversary of two of his great victories (Dunbar and Worcester), and the day which he had always considered the brightest in the year. The following is from Shake

speare:

All the world's a stage,

And all the men and women merely players:
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts,
His acts being seven ages.

THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION.

THE Government of the British Empire is vested in the Sovereign and the two Houses of Parliament,-the House of Lords and the House of Commons. It is thus a mixed government,--not pure monarchy, or pure aristocracy, or pure democracy, but a compound of all three. In this composite character lies its chief strength. Every grade of society, every interest in the country, is represented in it. The power of the landed aristocracy has its due weight in the House of Lords. That of the great middle class, and of the industrial classes who cooperate with them in producing wealth, is supreme in the House of Commons. The influence of an ancient hereditary monarchy is preserved in the Sovereign, who crowns the edifice.

The chief business of the two Houses of Parliament is to make laws, and to vote money for the public service. In theory, the power of carrying out the laws belongs to the Sovereign alone; but in practice, this is done in the Sovereign's name by the Ministry,-a body of advisers chosen from both Houses of Parliament. Now, the Ministry is responsible to Parliament for the conduct of affairs, and whenever it ceases to have the confidence of Parliament, the Sovereign must choose another body of advisers. Thus Parliament is virtually supreme.

The crown is hereditary, and may be worn either by a King or by a Queen, who must be a Protestant of the Church of England. The Sovereign has power to make war or peace; to pardon a convicted criminal; to summon, prorogue, or dissolve Parliament; to coin money; and to confer nobility. The assent of the Sovereign is also necessary to every new law. But, as already explained, these prerogatives are now exercised by the Sovereign under the advice of the Ministry for the time being; or by the Ministry in the name of the Sovereign.

The House of Lords, or Upper House of Parliament, comprises Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal, as follows:

:

Scottish hereditary Peers, who are also English or British.
Irish hereditary Peers, who are also English or British..
Scottish representative Peers, elected for each Parliament.
Irish representative Peers, elected for life...

43

78

16

28

452

The Lord Chancellor, sitting on the woolsack, acts as president or chairman of the Lords. The Upper House forms the highest court of justice, to decide appeals from the inferior courts. A peer may vote by proxy; that is, by a written paper, which is valid in his absence. Any bill, except a money bill, may originate in the House of Lords.

The House of Commons, or Lower House of Parliament, consists of repre