was thrown upon the dome of the National Gallery. At the Duke of York's Steps, a very striking effect was produced by the sharp, well-defined shadows of trees and their foliage cast on the pedestal of the shaft and column. As we made no photometrical observations of the relative intensities of the gaslight and the electrical beam, we can merely record our impression, which to many may seem a rhetorical superfluity, that the latter was greatly superior to its fair rival in point of brilliancy. The one was dazzling and penetrating; the other, soft and comparatively feeble.

From the preceding pages, it must strike every one that the Gramme machine is unquestionably among the greatest inventions of our age. It would be premature to speculate as to what it may yet achieve, but the experiments detailed in this paper encourage the expectation of still greater results when its intrinsic merits becoming generally known and appreciated, will have secured it its fitting place in the practical applications of electricity.

276

MENTAL POWERS OF BIRDS.

BY A. LEITH ADAMS, M.B., F.R.S.

THE

HE mental faculties of birds are admitted to be greatly inferior to those of the higher quadrupeds, and such is the case no doubt; but, irrespective of their remarkable instincts, they display other mental qualities of no very mean order. These we shall now consider individually, along with their accompanying gestures and utterances, so that the reader may consider how far they allow of being associated with, for example, the instinctive impulses that prompt the bird to migrate, or other well-known phenomena in relation to their nests and habits.

In the first place certain mental powers in birds, as in higher animals, are improved by exercise, and many species and even individuals of the same species show a greater aptitude than others. Even instincts which are considered to be uninfluenced by teaching or example do often display variations expressive of both reason and judgment, whilst many acquired habits lapse after generations into instinctive actions. Fear is a good instance of an instinctive emotion which has been greatly strengthened by experience, and it is wonderful to observe the part man has played in increasing it in many birds. Let us compare the delineations on ancient Egyptian monuments, showing the fowler surprising flocks of water-birds among the tall papyrus swamps of the Delta, and dealing destruction among them by means of missiles made of small pieces of wood shaped like the letter S, and delivered with force and dexterity, with the practice now adopted, where, after all the caution possible, and aid of gunpowder, it is extremely difficult to get within even rifle range of such as the geese and ducks. But although these birds are much persecuted, there are others which contrast in this respect in a singular way with their brethren in other countries. The fearless habits of the kestrel of Egypt, as compared with its much oppressed brother in England, are notable. No one molests it, and in the days of the Pharaohs, as

we learn from Herodotus, it was held sacred to the extent that whoever killed a hawk was put to death; so that it is possible the kestrel of the Lower Nile may have continued to enjoy a feeling of security up to the present day. The hooded crow is also very tame, as compared with its harassed brother in many other countries. The school-boy knows the effect produced by the report of his gun on many birds, and how other senses become sharpened in consequence; to wit, perception, as evinced by the crow and magpie perceiving the dreaded implement of destruction long before it can be brought to bear on them. Many birds acquire fear slowly; others are naturally timid. All gallinaceous birds are more or less fearless in their primordial states; and even partridges and grouse, only after weeks of constant persecution, acquire the alertness to enable them to be up and off before the sportsman gets within range. Even this lesson is forgotten during the close season. I was surprised both in the Himalayan and Canadian forests to find certain pheasants in the former and partridges in the latter quite fearless, more especially in secluded districts where they had not been molested by man. Indeed, so indifferent of danger were they, that beyond flying from the ground into the nearest branch, they seemed quite regardless of our presence. It was, moreover, a common practice with the first European settlers in many parts of America to knock the partridges off their perches by means of long wands. Then the only enemies of these birds were the sable and other martens, and the lynx, from which they escaped by simply flying into the nearest tree; however, as clearings were made, and the birds became more molested by man, they gradually took to longer flights, so that around the settlements it is somewhat difficult to shoot them. Birds that frequent mid-ocean islands, and have few enemies, are generally very tame. Such, however, as the grebes, guillemots, and awks, are low in the scale of ornithic intelligence; and probably on this account, and from its inability to fly, we might ascribe the extinction of the celebrated Northern Penguin or Great Awk, which may now be said to have disappeared, at all events from explored portions of the globe.

Again, the beautiful feathers of the monal pheasant of the Himalayas and American crested-jay have been long in request to decorate the heads of the ladies of Europe and North America; and, in consequence of constant persecution, both species have become so wild and wary, that in the case of the latter the denizens of the forest solitudes have inherited the timidity of their brethren of the settled districts. Here, no doubt, fear gradually attained has become a trait of character, seeing that

"Euterpe," II. para. 65. The Ibis is also included; it is now extinct in Egypt.

in the instances quoted it is well known that both birds in their original state were the reverse of pusillanimous. Fear is depicted even in the nestlings of many much persecuted birds; but man also, when down-trodden for many generations, displays an inherited dread of the conqueror, as is well observed in the natives of the valley of Cashmere and other oriental races who have been long subjected to tyrannical governments. Fear of man has also changed the habits of many birds and beasts. Thus the geese on the Nile feed at night, and repair to the islands and sandbanks in the day, when they can easily observe the approach of the numerous fowlers who wage a constant warfare during the cold months; and the beaver now builds its lodge after dusk, whereas we read, in the accounts of the early settlers in North America, of the work having been executed during the day. But indeed we have only to observe the ploughman's companions in the furrowed-field, and the dread established by the presence of the gamekeeper, to become assured of the part played by man in developing fear in the lower animals.

As regards their natural enemies. The stoop and motions of the hawk are readily recognised, but the bird itself causes little or no pertrubation when brought close to any of the species on which it preys; whilst cats, weasels, and the like, incite marked dread. This may be explained by the circumstance that the former is only known to them on wing, whereas the feline animal is often seen prowling in search of them. The well known danger-signals produced by many birds when the hawk hovers near their haunts, and the subdued note that breaks the dead silence in the hedgerow the moment following the stoop of the sparrow-hawk, are familiar instances of fear and dread which the long-reclaimed poultry have not forgotten, although from inexperience they sometimes mistake the swoop of the harmless pigeon for that of a rapacious bird.

Violent dread, in fact terror, is displayed in many birds. This is evinced by the widely dilated eyelids, wild excited aspect, and loud, helpless screams of wounded eagles, parrots, and the like. Anger and sorrow are evinced by plaintive cries, and redoubled efforts to drive away the plunderer of the nest; indeed, instances of prolonged grief for the loss of a mate are recorded by several naturalists. Hatred is displayed by certain species towards their foes: for example, in the flocks of swallows chasing and tormenting hawks.

The perceptive faculty is seemingly demonstrated by the following:-A German piping bullfinch, taken from a cage containing other birds, showed no particular predilection for any of the numerous inmates of a family circle, until after being caressed and spoken to by a lady for a few weeks, when it

singled her from all others by swelling out its feathers and chattering its bill whenever she came near the cage, whilst everyone else was greeted with evident signs of displeasure, as evinced by furious attacks, made with the desire to repel the intruder. On these occasions the mouth was open, and feathers adpressed, the little creature all the while digging at the wires and fluttering its wings in evident anger. The moment, however, its mistress's face appeared, all the symptoms of displeasure ceased, whilst the grotesque movements common to the wild bird during the love season took their place. These were evinced by the little creature swelling out its plumage, as, with tail awry, it fluttered from perch to perch, drawling forth the nature notes, or piping the acquired song, which consisted of a bar of "If ever I cease to love."

I tried various experiments by disguising the peculiarities of dress of its mistress, and introduced a number of female faces, but in every instance it recognised that of its benefactor. Now whether this lady had any resemblance to its original preceptor or not, the fact is that the bird showed considerable powers of perception and memory, for even the same face was at once known after a week's absence. The American Mocking-bird displays singular powers of distinguishing persons; I know an instance of one of these birds which invariably called to its owner whenever his voice was heard in the hall. I possessed a Carolina Mocking-bird, the natural call of which is so like the mew of a cat, that it is known by the name of Catbird. This individual, although reared from the nest, displayed an inordinate dislike for cats, whilst a bull-terrier never caused it any concern.

No doubt the higher animals dream, as shown by the tremulous startings and noises made by dogs when sound asleep; and birds would seem also to possess similar powers of imagination, as observed in caged individuals, which may often be observed to utter cries when the head is under the wing, and suddenly awake, as if the mental image had been the cause.

Such as the hooded crow and magpie do not break an egg to pieces, but make a small hole on the upper surface; and the same was noted by me in the case of the pine marten of India (Martes flavigula), which chips an opening just large enough to enable it to suck the contents. Now, in all these animals it is likely that the practice was first confined to individuals, and through example became general, and may now be instinctive; at all events it would indicate a glimmer of reason.

The excellence of bird architecture, and the efforts to conceal and place the nest in situations where enemies are not likely to rob it, furnish beautiful instances of instinctive intelligence; but surely there is also some dread of man or four-footed foes