King John signs the Magna Charta at Runnymede, 1215. First college founded at Cambridge, 1237. Origin of the mons, under Si mon de Mont fort, 1265. guage now called English. The works best illustrating the transition of the English language from its primitive Anglo-Saxon form are Layamon's "Chronicle of Brut" (1155-1200)—an almost purely Saxon production, but revealing foreign influence in the occasional use of Nor man rhymes; the "Ormulum" (1200-1237), composed in regular metre, and in which alliteration is entirely abandoned; "Ancrenriwle" (1237), containing a large number of Latin and Norman words and Saxon compounds; and Robert of Gloucester's "Chronicle" (post 1297), especially stamped with foreign influence in the copious use of French words, and the changes in Saxon inflections, terminations, and orthography. Coincident with this development of the English language was the decline of the French. The higher classes were generally acquainting themselves with English; and at length, in the fourteenth century, in spite of schools and fashion, it asserted its supremacy as the national tongue. Soon after 1350 English was taught in the schools; in 1362 it was ordered to be used in courts of law, "because the French tongue is much unknown;" it was employed by bishops in their sermons; and at last, in the hands of Chaucer and Gower, it became classical and the language of literature. "The work of Chaucer marks the final settlement of the English tongue." Thus English, a language essentially Germanic, crept forth from Anglo-Saxon. Celtic, Latin, French, Danish, Greek, even a few Arabic and Persian elements, make up three-eighths of it; but five-eighths, Years' War be- and, above all, the grammar, its scientific basis, Invention of gunpowder by Roger Bacon. First English Parliament, 1295. Commence ment of the Hundred tween England and France. are Saxon. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONTEMPORARY LITERATURES OF FRANCE, GERMANY, ITALY, AND SPAIN, WITH HISTORICAL, SCIENTIFIC, AND ART NOTES. 1. France.-Merovingian Dynasty, A.D. 507-752. Carlovingian Dynasty, 753-987: Charlemagne, 768-814. Capetian Dynasty: HUGH CAPET, 987-996; ROBERT, 996–1031; HENRY I., 1031-1060; PHILIP I., 1060-1108; LOUIS VI., 1108-1137; LOUIS VII., 1137-1180; PHILIP II., 1180-1223; LOUIS VIII., 1223-1226; ST. LOUIS IX., 1226-1270; PHILIP III., 12701285; PHILIP IV., 1285-1314; LOUIS X., 1314-1316; JOHN I., 1316; PHILIP V., 1316–1322; CHARLES IV., 1322-1328. House of Valois: PHILIP VI., 1328-1350. Kingdom of founded, 507. the Franks Defeat of the tel, 732. crowned Emperor of the West, at Rome, 800; presented Promotion of Intellectual Pursuits by Charlemagne. —Charlemagne did for France what Alfred did for England. Like him he attempted to alleviate the misery and ignorance of his subjects. Scholars from Italy and England were invited to his court; from Scotland came Alcuin, one of the most learned men of his time, to whom is attributed by many the founding of the University of Paris. Seminaries of learning were established; copies of classical works were distributed among the convents to promote the edu- Charlemagne cation of the clergy. But there exists no literary monument of his reign; a collection of ballads and legends which he caused to be made was lost during with gifts from the rule of his successor. The earliest extant literature of France dates from the eleventh century. Poetry of the Troubadours and Trouvères.-The bian Nights." early French language was divided into two branches, which took their names from their respective modes of expressing the word yes. The dialect of Southern France, called langue d'oc, was characterized by its close resemblance to Latin; while in Northern France his death-an the langue d'oil partook more of the Germanic nature. During the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth lando Furioso." the Caliph Haroun-al-Raschid, celebrated in "The Ara Roland's defeat by the Saracens at Roncesvalles, and event on which is founded Ariosto's "Or King John signs the Magna Charta at Runnymede, 1215. First college founded at Cambridge, 1237. Origin of the House of Common de Mont mons, under Si fort, 1265. guage now called English. The works best illustrating the transition of the English language from its primitive Anglo-Saxon form are Layamon's "Chronicle of Brut" (1155-1200)—an almost purely Saxon production, but revealing foreign influence in the occasional use of Norman rhymes; the "Ormulum" (1200-1237), composed in regular metre, and in which alliteration is entirely abandoned; "Ancrenriwle" (1237), containing a large number of Latin and Norman words and Saxon compounds; and Robert of Gloucester's "Chronicle" (post 1297), especially stamped with foreign influence in the copious use of French words, and the changes in Saxon inflections, terminations, and orthography. Coincident with this development of the English language was the decline of the French. The higher classes were generally acquainting themselves with English; and at length, in the fourteenth century, in spite of schools and fashion, it asserted its supremacy as the national tongue. Soon after 1350 English was taught in the schools; in 1362 it was ordered to be used in courts of law, "because the French tongue is much unknown;" it was employed by bishops in their sermons; and at last, in the hands of Chaucer and Gower, it became classical and the language of literature. "The work of Chaucer marks the final settlement of the English tongue." Thus English, a language essentially Germanic, crept forth from Anglo-Saxon. Celtic, Latin, French, Danish, Greek, even a few Arabic and Persian elements, make up three-eighths of it; but five-eighths, Years' War be- and, above all, the grammar, its scientific basis, Invention of gunpowder by Roger Bacon. First English Parliament, 1295. Commence ment of the Hundred tween England and France. are Saxon. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONTEMPORARY LITERATURES OF FRANCE, GERMANY, ITALY, AND SPAIN, WITH HISTORICAL, SCIENTIFIC, AND ART NOTES. I. France.-Merovingian Dynasty, A.D. 507–752. Carlovingian Dynasty, 753-987: CHARLEMAGNE, 768–814. Capetian Dynasty: HUGH CAPET, 987-996; ROBERT, 996–1031; HENRY I., 1031-1060; PHILIP I., 1060-1108; LOUIS VI., 1108-1137; LOUIS VII., 1137-1180; PHILIP II., 1180-1223; LOUIS VIII., 1223-1226; ST. LOUIS IX., 1226-1270; PHILIP III., 12701285; PHILIP IV., 1285-1314; LOUIS X., 1314-1316; JOHN I., 1316; PHILIP V., 1316–1322; CHARLES IV., 1322-1328. House of Valois: PHILIP VI., 1328-1350. Kingdom of the Franks founded, 507. Saracens by the Promotion of Intellectual Pursuits by Charlemagne. -Charlemagne did for France what Alfred did for England. Like him he attempted to alleviate the misery and ignorance of his subjects. Scholars from Italy and England were invited to his court; from Defeat of the Scotland came Alcuin, one of the most learned men of his time, to whom is attributed by many the founding of the University of Paris. Seminaries of learning were established; copies of classical works were distributed among the convents to promote the education of the clergy. But there exists no literary monument of his reign; a collection of ballads and legends which he caused to be made was lost during the rule of his successor. The earliest extant literature of France dates from the eleventh century. Charlemagne crowned Em peror of the West, at Rome, 800; presented with gifts from the Caliph Haroun-al-Raschid, celebrated in "The Arabian Nights." Roland's defeat by the Saracens at Roncesvalles, and Poetry of the Troubadours and Trouvères.-The early French language was divided into two branches, which took their names from their respective modes of expressing the word yes. The dialect of Southern France, called langue d'oc, was characterized by its close resemblance to Latin; while in Northern France his death-an the langue d'oil partook more of the Germanic nature. During the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth lando Furioso." event on which is founded Ariosto's "Or Scholastic Philosophy. Abelard, the scholastic divine, whose oise are much celebrated in poetry. [See Pope's "Abelard and Hel centuries the Troubadours of the South and the Trouvères of the North poured forth the gay and brilliant verses which constitute the beginnings of French literature. The former sang chiefly of love, and exhibit little imagination, emotion, or learning in their loves with Hel- works; but the latter celebrated the heroic and chivalrous deeds of kings and knights, and display considerable epic power. Their songs chiefly centred about the names of Charlemagne, King Arthur, and Alexander. These were followed by poems of an allegorical and satirical nature, many of which were very popular, and are well known at the present day— 66 Roman de Renard" and "Roman de la Rose." The former is the story of Reynard the Fox, the "Reinecke Fuchs" of Germany; the latter is one of the most celebrated productions of the Middle Ages, and was translated into English by Chaucer. [See "Chaucer."] oise."] Preaching of Peter the Hermit, 1095. St. Bernard, 1091-1153. Thomas Aqui nas, 1227-1274. Beginning of the Hundred Years' WarBattle of Crecy, 1346. Development of French Prose. Count de Joinville. -Two kinds of prose composition appeared in France in the thirteenth century—the "Chronicle of the Conquest of Constantinople," and the "Life of St. Louis," written by the statesman Count de Joinville. But writings in genuine French date from the fourteenth century. II. Germany.-Carlovingian Dynasty: CHARLEMAGNE, A.D. 800-814. LOUIS I., 814-840. LOTHAIRE I., 840-855. LOUIS II., 855-875. CHARLES II., 875-877. CHARLES LE GROS, 881-887. ARNULF, 887-899. LOUIS III., 899. LOUIS IV., 899-911. Saxon Dynasty: CONRAD I., 911-918. HENRY I., 918-936. OTHO THE GREAT, 936-973. OTHO II., 973–983. OTHO III., 983-1002. HENRY II., 1002-1024. House of Franconia: CONRAD II., 1024-1039. HENRY III., 1039-1056. HENRY IV., 1056-1106. HENRY V., 1106-1125. LOTHAIRE II., 1125-1138. House of Hohenstaufen: CONRAD III., 1138-1152. FREDERICK I., 1152-1190. HENRY VI., 1190-1198. PHILIP, 1198-1208. OTHO IV., 1208-1215. FREDERICK II., 1215-1247. WILLIAM OF HOLLAND, 1247-1250. CONRAD IV., 1250–1256. RICHARD Of CornWALL, 1257-1273. Houses of Hapsburg, Luxemburg, etc.: RUDOLPH OF HAPSBURG, 1273-1291. ADOLPHUS OF NASSAU, 1292-1298. ALBERT OF AUSTRIA, 1298-1308. HENRY VII., 1308-1313. LOUIS IV., 1347. CHARLES IV., 1347– Introduction of Ancient Pagan Sagas and Ballads.-The earliest. monument of German literature is the Gothic translation of the Bible, made by Ulfilas in the fourth |