703

TABLE IV.-CAST IRON.

Average length

32.6 cm. Area = 0.88 cm.

material, grain in the same direction. Thus treated the curve fell to B, a difference even at large induction densities of 5 per cent or so.

Rising.

H

Falling.

20

B

D

H

B

Mild Cast Steel

Cl

500

B Kilogausses.

10

The above curves embody practically every material which we have tested.

I could say much as to interesting side issues which have cropped up in the course of the research, but I have thought it best to keep strictly within the lines laid down at the commencement-a description of our method and the results obtained by it.

Even as I write this, I see the bearing of much of our work upon such vexed questions as the supposed "Mordey effect" (the decrease of hysteresis at full load), viscous hysteresis, and so on. But I should open so vast a subject and one on which so little is known, if I were to be led off to these subjects, that I think these questions must be reserved, I hope for a future paper.

At the same time I cannot help stating here that some of the points brought out by these researches seem to us to have vital bearing on the subject of transformers, and also to a certain though less extent on that of dynamo armatures; and these points it will now be our business to further investigate.

7,702. Improvements in or relating to the construction of electric lampholders, and other electric appliances." A. HOSTER. Dated May 4th.

7,728. "Improvements in lamp-posts or columns for electric arc lighting." J. LEA. Dated May 5th.

7,755. 'Improvements in and relating to electric motors or dynamo-electric machines." H. H. LAKE. (Communicated by the Crocker-Wheeler Electric Motor Company, United States.) Dated May 5th. (Complete.)

7,762. "Improvements in reciprocating electric engines." C. J. VAN DEPOELE. Dated May 5th. (Complete.)

7,822. Thermo-electric stove for heating purposes, and also for producing electricity." P. GIRAUD. Dated May 6th.

7,827. Improvements in railway signalling." I. A. TIMMIS. Dated May 6th.

7,857. Improvements in the construction of rheostats or similar electrical instruments." F. BRYAN and WOODHOUSE & RAWSON UNITED, LTD. Dated May 7th.

7,858. "Improvements in switches used for electrical purposes." C. S. SNELL and WOODHOUSE & RAWSON UNITED, LTD. Dated May 7th.

7,863. "An improved method of and means for cultivating land by the employment of an electric current." R. R. HUTCHINSON, W. B. HUTCHINSON and J. HUTCHINSON. Dated May 7th.

7,878. "Improvements in appliances for preventing ignition of gases in connection with dynamos, motors, or other electrical apparatus." F. J. ROWAN and W. MCWHIRTER. Dated May 7th.

7,911. "An electric switch." G. S. GRIMSTON. Dated May 7th. 7,912. "An electric capstan." G. S. GRIMSTON. Dated May 7th. 7,937. Improvements in or relating to electric resistance devices for measuring electric currents." C. W. Cox. Dated May 8th.

3,732. Improvements in electro-locomotives." J. HOPKINSON. Dated March 8th. 6d. Consists in using a four-pole dynamo machine with the magnets arranged horizontally. 4 claims.

3,841. "Automatic apparatus for compensating variations of current in electric conductors." SIEMENS BROS. and Co., LD. (Communicated from abroad by A. M. Taylor, of India.) Dated March 11th. 6d. The apparatus consists of a ring of soft iron, preferably made up of wire or laminæ having wound on it several convolutions of each of the conductors to be compensated, the convolutions belonging to the several conductors, occupying different parts of the circumference of the ring. Those of the conductors which have to convey electricity farthest have the fewest convolutions, and the others have the number of their convolutions properly proportioned according to their conditions, those which have the least resistance in their course having the greatest number of convolutions. 1 claim.

3,842. "A circuit-breaker for secondary currents from electrical transformers." SIEMENS BROS. and Co. (Communicated from abroad by A. M. Taylor, of India.) Dated March 11th. 6d. One of the leads from the secondary coil has to pass on its way through two pairs of contacts, one of each pair being the contact of two carbons, and the other of each pair being a wire dipping in a cup of mercury. The two wires and the two upper carbons are all fixed to an elastic metal bar, which is attached to the core of a solenoid coil, this core being itself suspended by an adjustable spring within the solenoid coil, which consists of convolutions of one of the main high tension leads. While the high tension current is maintained, the core is drawn down in opposition to the spring, bringing the upper carbons in contact with the lower carbons and then immersing the wires in the mercury, thus closing the circuit of the secondary coil of the transformer with the consumer's lead. When there is no current in the high tension lead, the core, being no longer drawn down, is raised by the spring, first drawing the wires out of the mercury while there is still contact of the carbons, and finally separating the carbons, so that the secondary of the transformer is no longer in circuit with the consumer's lead. By making the carbon contacts the last to be separated, sparking at the surface of the mercury is avoided. 1 claim,

[MAY 29, 1891.

G.

3,913. 'Improvements in alternate current transformers." KAPP, W. C. JOHNSON, and S. E. PHILLIPS. Dated March 12th. 8d. Claims-1. In a transformer with closed magnetic circuit; the combination of a straight core composed of thin soft iron strip, with one or two ring-shaped yokes, also composed of thin soft iron strip, the core being laid across the yoke rings, so that the surfaces of the core strip and yoke strip cross at right angles or nearly at right angles. 2. In a transformer with closed magnetic circuit the use of yokes made by winding a continuous strip of soft iron to a ring shape, in combination with a straight core laid diametrically across the yoke rings and insulated copper wire coils surrounding the middle portion of the core, and surrounded by the corresponding portion of the yoke rings. 3. The construction of transformer as described with reference to the drawings.

13,319. "Improvements in electric bells and motors." J. TOWNLEY. Dated August 25th. 8d. Relates to a contrivance attached to the ordinary form of electric bells or motors in which the magnetism is retained in the armature until it reaches a certain point also for completing a circuit and breaking the same automatically by means of a wheel having projections on its periphery. 3 claims.

15,547. "Improvements in locked switches for electric current circuits." J. A. ALIFFE and F. TEAGUE. Dated October 1st. 8d. Relates to improvements upon the invention covered by letters patent No. 6,267, dated 29th April, 1887, and No. 18,825, dated 24th December, 1888. The object of the present invention is to avoid or remove certain difficulties found in the practical working of the above specified invention, and to make the same more complete and efficient. 7 claims.

"

16,346. Improvements in apparatus for use in the distribution of electricity by storage batteries." S. C. C. CURRIE. Dated October 14th. 8d. The object of the invention is to provide a suitable and reliable means, whereby the potential of a system of storage batteries may be maintained constant when the output of current is variable according to the requirement of the working circuit. 6 claims.

16,653. "Improvements in apparatus for measuring the strength of electric currents." S. C. C. CURRIE. Dated October 20th. 6d. Consists of an electric current indicator having the magnetisable parts thereof composed of iron filings, chips, or shavings mixed or combined with an insulating adhesive substance or material. 6 claims.

17,181. "Improvements in electric switches." H. J. ALLISON. (A communication from abroad by J. A. K. McGregor, H. Wallach, and S. J. Wallach, all of New York.) Dated October 28th. 8d. Relates to devices for preventing the accidental closing of a switch when in use.

17,728. "Improvements in electric railways." M. W. DEWEY Dated November 4th. 8d. Consists in the combination in an electric railway of a source of irregular or alternating currents, a line working conductor extending therefrom, a series of coils distributed apart along the way, and connected with the conductor in series, a vehicle, an electric motor to propel said vehicle, electric connections between said motor and working conductor, and means carried by the vehicle to cause the generation of counter-electromotive force in one or more of the said coils near the vehicle. Consists further and more specifically in the combination in an electric railway of a source of irregular or alternating currents, a line working conductor extending therefrom, a slotted conduit containing the conductor, a series of coils distributed apart along the way and connected with the conductor in series, an iron core for each of said coils, and having exposed poles extending along the way, a vehicle, an electric motor to propel said vehicle, electric connections between said motor and working conductor, an iron body carried by the vehicle and arranged to make contact with said poles to maintain one or more closed magnetic circuits at or near the vehicle during its movement, to cause the generation of counterelectromotive force in one or more of the said coils at or near the vehicle and between the connections. 15 claims.

18,412. "Improvements_in_electric batteries and lighters for cigars and other purposes." D. ROBERTSON. Dated November 15th. 6d. Relates to an arrangement in which the zinc of the battery is immersed when required by depressing a plunger key, the vessel having a domed top. 3 claims.

THE ELMORE COMPANIES.

THE Financial News of May 27th contained a leading article on the Elmore Companies. It is a curious mixture of statements, opinions, and suppositions. They alternate in suitable order, but, for convenience of summarising, we have sorted them out and placed together kindred elements.

There is a leading motif which is noticeable throughout, and finds definite expression in the finale-the shares at the present quotation are much below their real value. There is 10 new information except that Mr. W. Elmore is now in harge of the works (vice Messrs. A. and S. Elmore, whose nexperience our contemporary previously adverted to). The merits of the process are reiterated in the terms with which we have been made so familiar from the time of the ssue of the prospectuses-tubes of extraordinary quality have been turned out; the company claims they are of exeptional strength. The opinions of interested persons are uoted with satisfaction-Mr. Elmore himself is confident hat the process can be made a commercial success; on the art of the directors there is unquestionably a strong and enuine faith in the financial future; M. Secrétan states hat all the promises may now be considered as fulfilled, and hat the manufacture is as successful as it can possibly be. The output of the works (at some future time), the suposed demand (when the output is attained), and the conseuent hopeful prospects, all find their place in the rticle in the usual way. Caution and candour are not bsent the invention had not hitherto emerged much eyond the stage of experiment, and it ought to be frankly ated that the companies have met with a great deal of iverse criticism. But the article is stronger in the conitional than the other elements. If ifs and ands were ots and pans wrought straight from Chili bars unuched by hands, the Elmore Company would find plenty business in supplying the requirements of their financial Ivocate if the data given is sound and reasonable it is ifficult to discover any fair ground for pessimistic views; if I. Secrétan finds a sale for 100 tons a week it is certain the ares are too low; if the English undertaking is promising

the French one should be more so; if figures given are correct they show an annual net profit of £224,000; if very handsome dividends are not gained the expectations of the management must be greatly at fault; unless the information supplied be greatly exaggerated certain criticisms will have to be withdrawn, and so on. The cost and the profit are indefinite, of course-it is said that 1d. per lb. of copper employed covers the cost of production; it is claimed by the company's officials that the 20 tons of tubing to be produced weekly can be disposed of at an average net profit of 2s. per lb. Of the Wire company, we are told that their works are estimated to turn out 100 to 200 tons every week, and the article would be incomplete without the reiteration that the wire has a conductivity of 4:40 per cent. above Dr. Matthiessen's standard; and some significance may surely be claimed for the fact that a Birmingham syndicate has given considerable orders for a year in advance.

The Financial News has had to go as far as New York to learn that some technical objections have been raised to the process, and that some "suspicions" exist that there is too much of the "stock jobbing" element-in connection with the concerns. It was only "a few weeks ago " that this suspicion was given voice to, and then by the Engineering and Mining Journal of New York. We are grateful to our transatlantic contemporary for the expression of its views; whilst we cannot but regret that in professing to combat them, the Financial News should have taken the opportunity of publishing an article of a most misleading character. The Financial News, in quoting the Engineering and Mining Journal, contrasts its views with facts which are vouched for by the officials of the English company. The Engineering and Mining Journal had stated that the deposit is of a foliated character, and that it exfoliates upon heating even to a very moderate degree, and, further, that it was very openly charged, that the process was being worked as a stock speculation rather than as an industrial investment. It seems to the Financial News that the best answer to this is to be found in the fact that repeat orders continue to flow into the Leeds works, and if the tubes are bad, it asks, or if the deposit show the defect as alleged, why on earth do

.706

customers continue to purchase them? The stock jobbing question the Financial News thinks a very insignificant one beside that of the merits of the invention and its commercial possibilities, and these two questions are apparently settled by the claims of the Leeds management that the increasing demand proves the one, and the difference between cost of production and selling price the other.

There being no better answer than the the "repeat orders we are afraid the outlook is not promising. There is nothing new about that answer. We have been familiar with it for some time. It is quite useless unless we are told the amount of the orders and the purpose for which the articles are used. Some information as to where they come from would also be desirable. If a customer buys sixpennyworth of Elmore copper and comes back for threepennyworth more it is a "repeat order." We are sorry to say it, but, in reference to the Elmore concerns, generalities will not do. We must have something definite and tangible. True, the extent of the repeat orders is implied to be large, because they "flow in," but we would still like to know something about the nature and extent of the flood, and be able to form some opinion as to the possibility of an ebb.

The article in question is an extraordinary one, and serves to add strength to the "suspicion" of the stock-jobbing question which is so "insignificant." The responsibility for the article is divided between those who supplied the information and the editor of the Financial News. We are saved the necessity of speculating as to where the information was obtained by the definite statement that it was supplied by persons, not merely familiar with the process, but engaged in working it.

In our correspondence columns we have been told that on the subject of the Elmore Companies the officials' mouths were closed by the directors, who in their wisdom had declined to allow any information to be given, and in our issue of April 17th, we remarked that "curiously enough there is seldom any restriction on statements of an indefinite but favourable character from the Elmore interest." The Financial News article is another instance of the truth of that remark.

We cannot expect the Financial News to be well informed on the technical questions, to know that the economy of production, considered on commercial grounds, is a fallacy which has been exposed over and over again in our columns; to know that a percentage of conductivity over Matthiessen's standard is common to any copper manufacturer who wishes to attain it, but we should expect the editor of a financial journal to see the financial and commercial absurdities jumbled together in his article. Wherein is the use of quoting estimates, even under a saving clause of non-commitment, which show an annual net profit of £224,000 on a capital of £140,000 ? The total is arrived at by taking the output of twenty tons per week, which will "shortly" be obtained, multiplying it by the moderate number of 50 weeks to a year, and assuming a net profit of 2s. per lb. for the lot. This basis is either a reasonable, well-considered one, or it is mere wild guesswork. In the former event why cut off the first figure and draw attention to the fact that even £24,000 would be very satisfactory? In the latter event why not alter one or her factor so as to put a seventh figure on the left hand

[JUNE 5, 1891.

side and then make allowances by cutting it out again? Is the Financial News aware of any business which makes a profit of two shillings on an expenditure of one penny without inciting competition which results in a speedy reduction to more modest dimensions? Should the editor of a financial journal have any doubts at all as to whether such data as that given in the article is "sound and reasonable?" We should have expected that the editorial doubts would have been excited by the very modest figures of the outpat. Hundreds of tons weekly are very lightly handled. There are no doubts that so large a share of the world's supply of copper will go through the Elmore Companies' hands. From such huge sales we fear the "clever French coppersmiths are unlikely to hammer many "beautiful forms.” They are probably clever enough to buy in the cheapest market, and as "copper ranges higher in France than in England," they will have to pay more than the 2s. per pound for Elmore, over the cost of ordinary copper, which the English company is going to be content with.

The Financial News recalls the fact that it published an article on the Elmore Companies last February. The "orders a year in advance" did duty then. In commenting (Febru ary 20th) upon that article we wrote as follows:-"The information at our disposal hitherto has been that the output for 1891 was contracted for by an important group of wire drawers. Is the 'year in advance' the same as the output for 1891,' and the Birmingham syndicate' the same as the important group?"" No answers to those questions have been given. It is now June, 1891, and stil the "year in advance" does duty, but in a slightly different way. It does not read as if the orders still held good, but the fact that considerable orders were given a year in advance is claimed to be of some significance. Undoubtedly it is, and we hope in due time the significance will be demonstrated.

We can quite understand that those interested in the Companies would like confidence to be restored, but it cannot be done by such articles as that of the Financial News, though it retails the confidence of Mr. Elmore, the faith of the directors, and the nonsense of M. Secretan The Companies have been formed and the works running & considerable time. Why, then, are we treated to exactly the same estimates of cost as we had in the original prospectus, with "repeat orders," " rapidly developing business," and similar phrases? The company should be in a position to know exactly the cost of production, works expenses and also establishment charges. If a technical journal states that the product is of a foliated character and exfoliates when subjected to heat, why does the company, or those who speak in its name, be-little their business by saying that the best answer they can give is "repes orders." It is no answer at all. The charge refers to stea pipes, the repeat orders may be for hydraulic rams, an super-heated steam is not a contingency to which hydran.. rams are subject. The charge relates to heat tests. Th answer gives figures for mechanical or cold tests such as wer! made before us at the press visit. Confidence is a plant f slow growth and quick decline. If it is desired to arrest th decline, it should be plainly stated what is the extent the business done, the cost of doing it, and the prof> resulting.

The Financial News commences its article with the

words:"The recent slight improvement in the market value of the shares is due, we suppose, to the progress which the works are making, and to the commercial prospects held out by the advocates of the Elmore process." The progress of the works involves the expenditure of the shareholders' money, and we are not aware that the advocates of the process have lately claimed any increase in the commercial prospects over those previously held out. It seems to us that the simultaneous appearance of the Financial News article and circulation of the extraordinary letter of Mr. Peck, of which we give extracts in our correspondence columns, points to proceedings far more likely to affect quotations than the causes ascribed by the Financial News.

From the time when we saw that the Elmore business was likely to be serious for investors we set ourselves the task of placing before the public the true meaning of the misleading statements put into circulation. Though it become somewhat irksome we shall continue to carry out that task. Our regret is that it is impossible for a technical journal directly to counteract the harm which may be done. If the article now referred to is a fair sample of the information upon which the general public invests in industrial undertakings the general public has our cordial sympathy.

ELECTRO-CULTURE.

UNDER the heading L'électro-culture, Mons. G. de Dubor discusses in a French contemporary at some length the effects of electricity upon plant life.

The application of electricity in the cultivation of plants is by no means a new idea. Some experiments appear to have been made by Mambray in this direction as early as 1746, but although the notion has been simmering in the minds of certain scientists almost ever since, but little progress has been made.

Some have investigated the effects of the rays of electric light upon vegetation, whilst others have studied the action of electric currents upon the growth of plants. There are thus two ways of approaching the subject, and those who have given any attention to it have chiefly concerned themselves with the action of the electric light.

Mons. de Dubor gives some account of the history of the experiments which have been made. In 1806, we learn that de Candolle gave a great deal of time to the examination of the behaviour of plants under the action of electricity, but with little result, for the science of electricity was then but little advanced. Later, Hervé-Mangon and Prillieux worked upon this curious subject of research.

The most interesting experiments, however, that are recorded are those due to Grandeau, Naudin, and Siemens. Grandeau endeavoured to prove that electricity was a vital necessity to vegetation. One of his experiments was the following:-Several tobacco and maize plants were placed in an insulated position and surrounded with a continuous metallic cage; after being carefully tended under these conditions for several months, it was observed that the plants had become unhealthy, whilst similar plants not thus surrounded grew normally. A critical observer, however, would not be inclined to attach very much importance to this experiment.

707

Naudin performed a less negative experiment. He planted tomatoes, lettuce, beans, &c., and surrounded them with an iron wire cage in such a way that electricity could be freely supplied. The results obtained by this treatment were somewhat significant. The beans grew to a larger size and looked more healthy than those which had not been thus treated. The lettuce under the cage attained an average height of 1.20 m., and weight of 427 grammes, as against a height of 10 m. and a weight of 337 grammes when grown in free air. The tomatoes grew to an average height of 1 metre and weight of 3.754 kilos, whereas in free air the height was 80 cm. and the weight 3.627 kilos.

In England Siemens has made much more searching experiments, especially regarding the influence of electric light upon vegetation. One of the investigations lasted seven months, and the plants were grown in two small greenhouses. Two lamps were employed, emitting a light equal to that of 5,000 candles; one of these was placed in one of the greenhouses, and the second was suspended at a height of 4 metres above the other. The temperature was maintained as uniform as possible at about 15° Centigrade.

Several kinds of seeds were sown and plants set in. The results were distinctly unfavourable, especially in the greenhouse which was lighted by the lamp placed in the interior. In a few days the leaves and the young shoots rapidly faded and became as it were scorched.

Siemens then thought of softening the intensity of the electric light by covering it with variously coloured glasses. By this means he was enabled to demonstrate that vegetation proceeded rapidly when white glass was used; that it was much slower under yellow glass, and that in this case the plants were less vigorous and paler in colour; that red glass produced a mediocre growth, whilst the foliage was meagre and yellowish finally, that blue glass yielded the worst results of all.

When white glass was used, raspberries planted on December 16th bore fruit on the 1st of March. Strawberries planted on December 10th furnished ripe fruit on February 14th. Vines planted on December 26th gave excellent grapes fully ripe on March 10th. With cereals there was equally rapid growth; peas germinated in two days.

It appears, then, that the effect of the electric light upon plants is of a very powerful order, and such experiments open up an exceedingly interesting line of research which might lead to really practical results.

The first attempts to apply the electric light to cultivation upon the large scale were made in England by Sheppard; others also endeavoured to make use of it, but with indifferent success. More recently a distinguished Russian agriculturist, Spechnew, has been carrying on a series of experiments on the large scale for six years without interruption.

Spechnew commenced by applying electricity to the germination of wheat, and he observed that the growth was much more rapid when this application was made than under ordinary circumstances.

He then employed dynamic electricity, burying large plates of zinc and copper, connected with wires, in the soil in which were grown beans, carrots, &c., and in every case he obtained a finer crop.

Static electricity was next experimented with, the plants were arranged within the influence of collectors of atmospheric electricity. For five years experiments were systema