The Hangaku were institutions established and supported by the vari ous provinces, where children of the military and higher classes were taught but which were sometimes opened to children of dependents; the Kyōgaku were institutions, established within the territories of Taifu (chief ministers of feudal lords), or in other prosperous districts, where chiefly children of the military class were taught, but to some of them pupils of all classes were admitted. These institutions were supported at public expense. After the Restoration elementary schools were first established in the Fu of Kioto, but these schools were only a slight improvement on the Terakoya, a real development being manifest, however, in 1871, when six elementary schools of Tokio were placed under the direct superintendence of the department of education, which was established at that date, and a regular course of instruction was arranged.

In the first year of Meiji, 1868, the political power having been transferred to the Emperor, the Gakushiu-in (a school for nobles) was estab lished in Kioto. This was the first step toward the improvement of education after the political reform. In 1869 there was established in Tokio the university, which had control of educational matters over the whole country. In 1871 the controlling powers of the university were replaced by the department of education, or Mombushô, which has entire charge of the educational system of the country. In the year 1872 a new law of education was presented by which the school districts and the mode of instruction in the university, secondary schools, and elementary schools, were determined. The school age of children was also fixed at from 6 to 13 years. At this period a great many schools were established in various parts of the country, and great improvements were made in the general methods of instruction. In January of 1875 the school age of children was altered to 6 to 14 years. In September, 1879, the old law of education was abolished, a new law of education was passed, and many improvements were made in the system. Thus it is seen that elementary education is based upon the law of 1872. It was placed on a firm basis by the revision of 1880 which modified the system of school districts, lengthened the course of study to more than thirty-two weeks a year, and gave to the authorities of Fu and Ken greater power over education.

Still further improvements came from imperial ordinances, in 1886, relating to elementary schools, and there were still later efforts at reform, The secondary schools for pupils completing the elementary course date from 1872. Their course varied from two to six years, and the subjects differed in the various localities. Modifications of this basis were made from time to time, and in 1886 the secondary schools, which were subdivided into lower secondary and higher secondary schools, and had had no connection up to that time with the university, were distinctly designated as institutions to prepare pupils for practical occu

pations, or for admission to higher educational institutions. In the year 1872 teachers institutes were established, and that year also gave birth to the normal school, which was first established on a firm basis in 1873, and was divided in 1879 into preparatory, higher preparatory, and professional courses. In the year 1883 there was an entire remodeling of these schools; in 1885 it was decided to train the two sexes together, and in 1886 the normals were divided into higher and lower normals; the higher normal to be established at Tokio under direct control of the minister of education, and each Fu and Ken to have a lower grade normal school. The university, the many special schools, and those of miscellaneous character, have all had their changes in the years under advisement. The various laws and imperial ordinances have not left these institutions untouched, but the changes have possibly not had so marked an effect upon the people at large as in the ele mentary and secondary schools, hence a study of these institutions can be deferred to the appropriate headings below, even so with the modifications in supervision, in attendance, and general conduct of schools. It suffices here to state that from this cursory glance over the administrative and educational history of the Japanese peoples a general deduction may be made. Thus from 1867 to 1889 the capacity of the people for self-government was tested, and it was manifest, as early as 1878, that this system of government had steadily advanced. In 1881 there was the promise of a liberal constitution, and in 1889 came the fulfillment of that promise. In 1881 power was granted to establish local educational boards, and in 1885 greater freedom in the shaping of local educational methods was noticeable. The period commencing with 1889 gave new laws for city, town, and village government, changed the local subdivisions, brought about new electoral privileges, and in every direction indicated the effect of broader modern influences. Special phases were developed, however, in different sections, and widely different conditions were noticed, but with the firm establishment of a limited and liberal constitutional monarchy, based upon the new constitution of February 11, 1889, one of the most ancient peoples finds itself abreast with modern movements adopting a system of liberal ideas as advanced as those of any European nation, and based in part upon French and American models.

SCHOOL SYSTEM.

Establishment.-According to the law of 1879, with its modifications of 1880, 1886, 1889, and 1890, the schools are divided into the kindergar ten, elementary, secondary, normal, and professional schools, universities, agricultural, commercial, and industrial schools, and other institutions of learning. These schools are established by governmental authority, and under the general control of the minister of education,

aided by the governing powers of Fu and Ken,' or under the control of other ministries, an account of which will be presented as occasion offers.

The kindergärten include governmental, public, and private establishments. They were first established in 1876, with the object of training children from 3 to 6 years of age in such branches as "foster moral virtues, promote physical development, train in good habits, and unfold the intellectual faculties."

The elementary schools are those in which general education is given to children and at which attendance is compulsory, the school age being fixed at from 6 to 14 years and the sexes being generally taught together. By ordinance of 1890 the schools are divided into lower elementary, and higher elementary schools. Those established and maintained at the expense of cities, towns, or villages, or of town and village school unions, or of the districts within them, are called city, town, or village, elementary schools, and those established and maintained at the expense of private individuals are called private elementary schools. Apprentice schools and supplementary schools for technical instruction are also classed under the heading of elementary schools. Each city, town, or village is expected to establish and maintain elementary schools sufficient to accommodate all children of school age, 6 to 14, resident in such city, town, or village. The city, town, or village may also establish and maintain kindergärten, libraries, schools for the blind and dumb, and miscellaneous schools similar in character to elementary schools.

The secondary schools, which give higher instruction in the branches of study preparing for liberal pursuits or more advanced education, are organized according to the local conditions of each Fu and Ken and in conformity with the general regulations issued by the department of education. Normal schools intended to train teachers for elementary schools are to be established in every Fu and Ken. The object of the university is to give instruction in special branches in its four departments of law, science, medicine, and literature. The professional schools, which are organized according to the local condition of Fu and and Ken, include medical, pharmacal, legal, scientific, mathematical, architectural, naval, foreign language schools, gymnastic and drawing schools. The regulations of these schools are determined by the department of education or by the departments to which they are assigned, such as that of military affairs, agriculture, marine, etc., or in part by local conditions. The agricultural schools have courses, which are determined according to local conditions, and are conse

1 The Japanese terms used throughout this article may be defined as follows: Fu, Imperial city (each Fu consists of one main city with suburban districts); Ken, or prefectoral divisions of the Empire. The Fus are divided into Ku, cities or wards, and Cho, precincts. Then there are the Gun, or counties, which since 1889 are divided into Shi, Cho, and Son (graded according to population). The Shi is a city, generally; Cho, a town; and Son, a village. The Fu Chiji and Ken Rei are governors, respectively, of city and county. The Kochô is a director, and the word Chō is also used to indicate a magistrate.

quently not uniform; agricultural institutes teach practical business, and have a simple course of study. Commercial schools, which, like the above-mentioned schools, are organized according to local conditions, but in accordance with general regulations issued by the minister of education, give their students the opportunity to learn the practical business of commerce. Industrial schools are to be established according to similar conditions, so that students may learn practical business. Private schools are also established with the approval of the governor of Fu and Ken, and all public and private schools are to be opened to inspection of any officials designated by the minister of education. High schools for girls are for the purpose of giving a higher class of education to girls who have completed the elementary school course. Then there are various miscellaneous schools, organized in different localities, such as Japanese, Chinese, French, German, and English schools, those for the deaf and dumb, bookkeeping schools, handiwork schools for women, schools where arithmetic alone is taught, and those in which reading is the main basis of instruction.

State control. The majority of the schools, unless some of the pri vate ones be excepted, are under the general control of the minister of education, who presides over the department of education. He is aided in supervising education throughout the country by special inspectors, who exercise general supervision over the local authorities by visiting the schools when sent out by the department. There are also many schools under the control of the department of the imperial household, under the military department, under the control of the department of marine, of justice, of agriculture and commerce, the department of communications, and under the control of the Hokkaidô1 administration board.

Local control is not regulated by any fixed rules, and there have been from year to year many modifications of the ordinances governing such general oversight. Sometimes there are committees of inspection; the school officials of Gun and Ku attend to the periodical examinations; supervising teachers aid in the matter of improving educational systems; teachers of morals are also sent from point to point within their own jurisdiction. More than this, all the local authorities aid in the matter of control over the schools in their respective districts, so that through the reports made to the special inspectors, and by them to the department of education, there is positive knowledge among the officials at Tokio of the condition of educational institutions throughout the Empire.

Maintenance. The law of 1879 classifies the schools in point of maintenance into public and private; the former being maintained by local taxation, or at the public expense of the cities, towns, or villages in which they are established; the latter being those which are estab

The Hokkaido is the name given to the northern country or islands of Japan, and, being so remote from the central authorities, has its own administration board in charge.

lished and supported at the private expense of one or more individuals. In localities where school funds are deficient itinerary schools may be established and school fees may be charged, or not, according to the needs of the locality. This local taxation does not do away, however, with appropriations from the Government, which are regularly made to the respective educational circuits. The grounds occupied by schools are generally exempted from taxation. In 1886 the maintenance of elementary schools was changed somewhat. Where formerly the expenses were defrayed out of the rates of ward and village, they were to be supplied by school fees, and if money was obtained by contributions, it was to be available for the payment of expenses. When school fees and donations were not sufficient to defray the expenses, the deficiency was to be supplied out of town or village rates. If local circumstances made it necessary a simpler elementary course might be substituted for the ordinary elementary course and the town or village pay the expenses, even to the salaries of teachers, out of the village taxes. The national treasury was to support one higher normal school; each Fu or Ken to support a lower grade normal from the local taxes and a lower grade secondary school. A higher secondary school was to be established in each of the five districts into which Japan was divided; its expenses to be paid partly by the national treasury and partly by local taxes of the Fu or Ken of the circuit. In the Hokkaido and Okinawa Ken the expenses of normal and secondary schools were to be defrayed out of local supplies paid from the national exchequer, and the elementary schools established by towns and villages were to be aided partly by local taxes. By imperial ordinance of 1886 it was prescribed that regulations for the management of school funds should be established by the Governors, namely, the Fu Chiji or Ken Rei. By this provision not only the school funds, but also the sites, school lands, buildings, books, and apparatus were not to be diverted to other uses. According to imperial decree of 1890 cities, towns, or villages, or town and village school unions are to maintain elementary schools as follows:

To provide and maintain school buildings, school sites, school appliances, gymnastic halls, and lands for practical training in agriculture; to provide for the salaries, traveling expenses, etc., of elementary schoolteachers; and to provide for such miscellaneous expenses as are incurred in connection with elementary schools.

The maintenance of higher schools does not seem to be changed from the earlier conditions mentioned above.

STATISTICS..

Before proceeding to give statistics it may be well to state that during the years 1886-90 many decrees, which bore directly upon education, were promulgated by the highest authorities; the Fu and Ken authorities rearranged their school districts, the school arrangements being so different in the various cities and counties that no comprehensive statement can be given; great alterations in boundaries of towns and villages were made, and there was general readjustment of school