Die Reform der Russischen Universitäten nach dem Gesetz vom 23. August 1884. Boletin de la Institucion libre de Enseñanza, August 31, 1890.

La Riforma Universitaria, December 8, 1890.

Wallace, Mackenzie. Russia.

Encyclopædia Britannica, volume 21.

Statesman's Year Book, 1891, 1892.

Stepniak: Under the Tsars.

Fortnightly Review, 1891.

London Journal of Education, May, 1891.

Darkest Russia, June 30, 1892.

Articles on Russia by Miss F. Toulmin Smith and Dr. Himowich.

Miscellaneous Scrap Books.

CHAPTER IX.

THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF JAPAN.1

Constitutional Empire (since February 11, 1889); area, 147,655 square miles; population2 40,072,020 (January 1, 1890); capital, Tokio; population, 1,389,684; minister of state for education, Count Oki Takato.

ADMINISTRATION AND HISTORY.

The archipelago of Japan comprises 3,850 islands, four of which, Hondo, Kiushiu, Shikoku, and Yezo, rank as the most important. Its territorial organization is divided into 85 provinces, 42 urban and 804 rural districts, 1,111 towns, and 13,374 villages (1890).

The administration of the provinces is regulated from the three Fus, or imperial cities, Tokio, Kioto, and Osaka, and from the forty-three Kens, or prefectoral divisions of the Empire. For still further local administration there are Ku and Gun, or subdivisions into cities or wards, and counties, and, since April 1, 1889, an imperial decree has established minor offices which deal almost entirely with the administration of municipality, town and village. This further carries out the principle of decentralization and self-government and is to be applied gradually according to the circumstances and requirements of the localities.

The Hokkaido, or Northern Province, has a special organization of its own, a governor and an administrative board. According to the constitution of February 11, 1889, the Emperor controls all the administrative affairs of the Empire, exercising executive power with the assistance of his ministers and privy council, and legislative power with the consent of the two legislative bodies, or Imperial Diet, which controls the finances and the administration of justice. Provincial affairs are controlled by the governors, one for each Fu or Ken, but they in turn receive directions from the cabinet. The minor officers in the

Prepared by Miss Frances Graham French.

In 1889 the population was divided among the various classes as follows: Imperial family, 46; Kwazoku or nobles, 3,825; Shizoku or knights (formerly retainers of the Daimios) 38,074,558; common people, 1,993,637. The number of foreigners in 1890 was 9,063; of these 4,975 Chinese, 1,701 English, 899 Americans, 550 Germans, 312 French. The number of Japanese residents abroad in 1889 was 18,688.

various territorial subdivisions referred to above are under the superintendence of the governors, and in the wards and villages the reports as to administrative affairs are made to an intermediary who himself refers affairs to the governor.

The history of the Empire from the founding of the dynasty of Jimmu (660 B. C.) through years of a feudal system may be divided into four periods-the first, a purely local one, ending with the landing of the Portuguese in 1543; the second, from 1543 to 1638 including the introduction of Catholicism into Japan and the final ordering away of all foreigners from the country, as their presence came to be considered detrimental to the political system and to the religions of Japan (i. e., Shintoism and Buddhism); the third, from 1638 to 1854, continuing the exclusion of foreigners and being distinguished by the Dutch monopoly; the fourth, since 1854, includes the establishing of commercial treaties with foreign powers, the sending of enlightened statesmen to European and other countries to study advanced civilization in the most progressive nations, and as a result of such study follows the consequent development of a more liberal form of government. Ethnologists differ as to the origin of the people of these islands, but it is stated that the modern Japanese race is a commingling of a people which came from Southern Asia and the Malay Archipelago with the Corean and Chinese peoples.

The religions are that of Shintoism or worship of the sun goddess (the spiritual emperor being considered the direct descendant, and every district having its patron saint or kami), and the Buddhistic, which, introduced in the sixth century, is considered a more modern creed. The literati believe in the system of morals and the philosophy of Confucius. The literature of Japan includes original writings and translations and the whole circle of Chinese Confucian literature. The Chinese classics, indeed, form the basis of the literature, system of ethics, and highest type of thought of the Japanese people. In tracing the history of the nation, one clearly sees a marked development along educational lines. As early as 285 A. D. a Corean came to Japan and taught the heir apparent Chinese letters and the ethics of Confucius. In 552 Corean missionaries introduced books, the writings of the Chinese classics, and Buddhistic images and canon. This was a noticeable period from the educational standpoint. Officials and the nobility learned to read and write, and literary, governmental, and historical records were soon compiled. The religious development, combined with its attendant schoolmasters, was the means of creating a limited class of readers, and from the sixth century on education and Buddhism seemed to move on together. Kobo, a priest and schoolmaster, who lived from 774 to 835, was learned in the Pali, Sanscrit, and Chinese languages, and was credited with being the inventor of the Japanese alphabet. To him is due the national success of Buddhism, as he developed a system of theology in which Buddhism absorbed Shintoism. Following him came Sugarawa

Michizané (died 903 A. D.), who also aided in the advancement of literature and education. From that date to the twelfth century the Emperor (or, as he is usually called, the Mikado' or Golden Gate,) ruled supreme from Mara to Kioto, which were well known political and edu cational centers. With the year 1192 commenced the period of the Shoguns (tycoons), which was that of a dual government with two rulers, two capitals, and two centers of authority. This duarchy lasted until 1868, when the Shogunate was overthrown. The principle of duality was also carried out in the Japanese language, for there were two distinct alphabets, the Chinese ideographic symbols and the phonetic alphabet.

The former is especially in use in the higher class of books and in diplomatic documents; the latter has been subject to great variation, but from it has developed a simpler alphabet known as the Katagana characters. Evidence of intellectual activity was apparent as early as 1333, for, dating from that period, are chronicled the establishment of monastic schools and the general spread of Buddhistic doctrines; then followed a period favorable to the Jesuits but less so to the Buddhists. During the years 1532-1582 a reaction was apparent, and where formerly the nobles only were educated there developed a centralization of the feudal system at Yedo, and an extending of educational facilities to all classes throughout the Empire. The basis of the culture manifest from 1604 to 1868 was found in the study of the Chinese classics of Confucius and Mencius. Native literature was largely studied, and the funda mentals of education, reading, writing, and the abacus were generally taught. At date of 1854 it was reported that seven-tenths of the people could read and write, and there were military, gymnastic, and normal schools, universities, and private schools in various sections of Japan. Both sexes were accorded equal educational privileges, and the people were gradually realizing the necessity of more direct communication with the outside world, and the introduction of a national system of education developed from the highest types found amongst other nations. The local government of the past was slowly yielding to broader modern influences and the more enlightened statesmen looked forward to the establishing of a more direct central power. The commercial treaties of 1854 and 1858 opened Japan to the outside world and more reliance could be placed on the information obtained in regard to the Japanese people. The statement in regard to earlier periods of history were often not to be relied upon, as many details had been left to mere hear

The Mikado's right and authority are grounded on the belief in his divine descent. Honors conferred upon him were always considered the highest distinctions which could fall to the lot of any subject, not exceeding the all-powerful Shogun. The distinctions of class are especially noteworthy in Japan. These distinctions were a gradual outgrowth of feudalism. The groups are as follows: The Mikado house, with the court nobility (Kuge) in Kiôto, the military class, or Samurai, and the laboring class or the people (Heimin.)

say evidence, or to the imagination of the writers, but from 1854 on Japan entered upon a new period of existence. In 1863 the Tycoon, Stotsbachi, begged the Emperor to convoke all the nobles of the Empire, so as to take into consideration the placing of the Government upon a firm basis. The efforts to carry out this plan brought about a revolution which was unexpectedly favorable to the Japanese. In 1868 the Emperor endeavored to thoroughly transform the Government by taking steps to abolish the feudal form of government, which he was successful in doing in 1871. The tycoons were overthrown and the Emperor became the supreme ruler.

In 1869 a decree regulated the administrative department, and the foundation of the present system of internal affairs was laid. In 1871 the Emperor established himself in Yedo, which he called Tokio, instead of remaining in Kioto, the old capital of the Mikados. He then sent embassadors to the United States, England, and France to study the civilization of those countries and to enter into commercial treaties with them. He also called distinguished men from America and Europe to reform all branches appertaining to the general administration of the Empire. He increased the number of schools and sent young persons to the colleges of America, England, and France to study at governmental expense. In 1871 a ministry of education was established; in 1872 the scheme of the present system of education was presented; in 1873 the Japanese adopted the Gregorian calendar, and all present publications bear both the date of the Gregorian calendar and that of Meiji or the present dynasty. From the administrative standpoint Japan was formerly divided into ten1 territorial circuits formed of sixtyeight provinces, over each of which was a governor. These officials formed a feudal confederation, but the revolutionary movements indicated above brought about tendencies towards centralization and gradually new legislation was adopted, which, based upon French models, reorganized the legislative branch of the Government and brought about the adoption of new laws in 1876. The legislative reforms were completed by the creation of a school of law,with a French gentleman as director. Another school, where French only was taught, was created in connection with the ministry of justice, the pupils receiving instruction in all studies in that language.

Before the Restoration,' as the first year of the Meiji was called, institutions for the elementary education of children were chiefly those of the Hangaku, Kyōgaku (private schools of low standard), and Terakoya.

1In 1885 the whole country was divided into six (reduced to five afterwards) educational circuits, for each of which a special school inspector was appointed. This in a measure simplified the general plan of supervision, but it brought about more efficient supervision from the central organization.

The change from the rule of the Shogunate to that of former times, when Japan was under one ruler, the Mikado or Emperor, is usually referred to as that of the Restoration.