to fulfill the functions for twenty-five years and are then entitled to a pension, but if they are still equal to the requirements of their position, they can occupy the place for five years longer, receiving during the latter period both salary and pension. Another five years' period of teaching is also allowable with an addition of one-fifth to the pension. A professor, according to law of 1835, receives the title emeritus after twenty-five years of service, but, if able, he can still fill the position for a five years' period. The law of 1863 continued this plan, only it required a vote of two-thirds of the council to decide whether the person was fitted for an extension of the time of service. As cases of unfitness for further duty were reported to the minister a law of March 31, 1869, modified the decision by requiring a majority vote in the council. This was further modified by the commission of 1875 deciding that the reappointment after twenty-five years of service depended upon the professor's wishes, as sanctioned by the curator with the consent of the minister, but after thirty years' service he was to obtain the full pension of 3,000 rubles and not fill a professorship, although if desirable he might still remain a member of the faculty, and if allowed by the curator, take charge of a preparatory institute. The pensioning and remuneration in the case of an extra five years' period were not determined by this commission, but were left for further discussion.

COURSES OF STUDY.

In the infant and maternal schools the child of from 3 to 10 takes its first steps in education, its powers of observation are trained and it learns the first elements; in many of the schools kindergarten methods are found. Asylums, which rank below or with the elementary grades, are for children between 7 and 12 years of age. The instruction aims to give the necessary elements of knowledge and to thoroughly inculcate religious and moral ideas. Here, too, Fröbell's methods are used. The elementary grades take cognizance of the immediate surroundings of the pupils, the earliest lessons being by the intuitive method, the regulations including the mother tongue (i. e., elements of Russian grammar), reading from manuscript and printed matter, writing, arithmetic through the first four rules, and singing. In the villages and hamlets there are two or three classes, if the attendance permits. In cities the higher grade elementary schools have in their six-year courses geography, Russian history, fractions, geometry, object drawing and drawing from copy, singing (especially church chants). If feasible, a trade is added for the boys and needlework for the girls. At the close of the course pupils are entitled to enter the governmental service without extra examination, and after a four years' course they are presumed to be fitted for the gymnasia. The district schools, maintained by the ministry of public instruction, and gradually being transformed into city schools, have a course of study in which religious instruction occupies an important place; arithmetic is limited to addition, subtraction, multiplication,

division and simple fractions. The elements of history, geography, and natural history are taught from books sanctioned by the Government. At the close of the third year pupils present themselves before the inspector or his delegate for examination in order to obtain the certificate for elementary studies.

The schools under control of the Holy Synod, which arranges its own programmes, give great prominence to religious instruction, reading, writing, and arithmetic coming next. These schools are generally presided over by some brotherhood, as that of St. Cyril and St. Methodius at Moscow, and the Brotherhood of Our Lady at St. Petersburg. A few cities have higher elementary schools of a parochial character, but, as a general thing, this is simply a complementary course of possibly two years.

Parallel with secondary and elementary courses are the technical and industrial schools. The intermediate technical schools correspond to Realschools, and in six to eight year courses give pupils sufficient knowledge of technical and commercial studies to fit them for industrial pursuits. The industrial schools take graduates from the elementary grades and form them into good workmen, mechanics, and designers. Among these schools are the railroad schools depending upon the ministry of posts and telegraphs. The lower grade technical schools have a course of study which does not go beyond that of the elementary schools. Their aim is to form skillful artisans and workmen in village industries. Pupils to be admitted must show that they have attended public school and enter for the purpose of learning a trade.

Secondary schools for girls date from an early period, but by a regulation of May 24, 1870, such schools were rendered uniform with the gymnasia and progymnasia for boys. The courses for the gymnasia were of seven years, those of the progymnasia three years, and in each there was a preparatory class. An eighth class in the gymnasia, called the pedagogic class, had as its aim the preparation of teachers for an inferior grade of schools. The course of study in the progymnasia covers religious education, Russian language, history and geography of Russia, elements of universal geography, arithmetic, caligraphy, and needlework; in the gymnasia, religious instruction, Russian language, literature, arithmetic, keeping accounts, geometry, universal geogra phy and that of Russia, universal history and that of Russia, the principal elements of natural history and physics, the principles of domestic economy and hygiene, caligraphy, needlework, and gymnastics. Studies which are nonobligatory are the French and German languages, music, singing, and drawing. Pupils desiring to follow these branches pay such fees as are determined by the administrative councils. The course in pedagogy is principally destined for preparation of teachers, and consequently it comprises principles of education, systems of instruction, and methods applicable to gymnasia for girls. There are also practice courses under the direction of teachers of the institution. The graduation examination consists in a French or Ger

man composition upon a subject given during the examination, and some knowledge of the history of literature of the two countries. The pupils must also speak the two languages thoroughly, and, in the last years of the course, are only allowed to use foreign tongues. In addi tion to the gymnasia and progymnasia, for day pupils, there are institutes or boarding schools dating from the eighteenth century, these institutions being, generally speaking, for the territorial nobility, and usually presided over by the widows of higher State officials who are left without fortune. They are aided by inspectresses, who direct the studies. The directresses and inspectresses occupy themselves particularly with the discipline and general care of the establisment.

The buildings occupied are of a superior class of architecture, with vast corridors, a large room for ceremonials, etc. The class rooms and directress room are on the first floor; the recreation halls, sleeping and dining rooms on the floor above. Large gardens adjoin these institutes, which serve as play grounds in pleasant weather. Special costumes are worn in the different institutes. There are also regular boarding establishments of a secondary class for girls. All these schools have a woman in charge of each class, who resides in the institution, and looks after the discipline of the classes. These ladies in many cases have been pupils in the schools, and, having aptitude for the work intrusted to them, remain connected with the institutions as class supervisors. The conditions of admission to these institutes for girls are not severe. The girls must know how to read, write, count, read French and German. The course of study covers Russian, French, and German languages, history and literature, Greek and Latin (optional), history, geography, cosmography, natural science (physics, natural history, elements of chemistry), arithmetic, geometry, algebra, pedagogy, religion, and history of the church. The religious instruction devolves upon priest and pastors, of different creeds, in the neighborhood, but proselyting is not thought of.

The education of women in Russia is a question of great interest to all, and has been carried to a higher point than in other countries, the United States excepted. Courses for women have been opened by university professors similar to those of the Sorbonne in France. Special courses in medicine are open to woman, but they are only authorized to follow such courses if they have passed examinations in gymnasia and institutes. All throughout the Empire the higher culture of women is a noticeable feature. The empresses in turn have manifested great interest in the development of their sex, and the influence of women has been marked in elevating society and in contributing elements of distinction to the Russian character.

Secondary instruction for boys is given in progymnasia and gymnasia, the first mentioned being preparatory to the latter. The gymnasia are divided into philological and industrial gymnasia; in the former the study of ancient languages predominates and the Government favors study of the classics. In the latter, natural sciences and

mathematics take the lead. The Realschools, or industrial gymnasia, are destined to prepare persons for an entrance into commerce and industry. The courses in the progymnasia are similar to the first four classes of the Realschools, so that students frequenting these schools are preparing themselves for any career, and, when they are ready to choose, they either enter the gymnasia and continue studies leading to a scientific and literary course, or carry on such studies in the Realschool as apply to commerce and industry. The progymnasia programmes do not differ greatly from those of the gymnasia, being preparatory to them, but the ancient languages are not included. At the close of the course in these preparatory schools a certificate of maturity is given.

Statutes of 1828 were the basis of gymnasial study. These statutes were modified in 1849 and again in 1864,1 when the conditions of admission to the gymnasia were lowered. In 1872, Count Dimitri Tolstoi urged the need of a general plan of instruction for gymnasia and progymnasia; the plan to emanate from the universities, but to be modified by teachers, pedagogical councils, and curators.

A commission appointed at that period endeavored to bring about more unity in methods of instruction, so that pupils could pass from one gymnasia to another.

Prior to the ministry of Tolstoi natural sciences and physics found a prominent place in the course, but changes were wrought from year to year as the exigencies of the times or political requirements seemed to make it necessary, so that at the present time the classics preponderate. The following is the programme of studies in 1889 in Russian gymnasia:

a According to the statutes two hours must be given to natural science in one of the higher classes. This short course has as object to give the pupil knowledge of the most important objects of nature and their relation to each other. These relate more particularly to botany, zoology, and knowledge of the earth's surface.

b For the teaching of history there are two courses: A short one of the different epochs given in the third and fourth classes, and a more extended course in fifth, sixth, and seventh classes.

1 The programme in 1864, in addition to ancient languages, included cosmography and geography, chemistry and physics, which greatly interested the students; and arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, in which abstract branches they seemed to feel less interest, as it is stated by M. Hippeau.

The classical gymnasia are preparatory to the universities, but for those who desire to enter real life and do not care for the university course, the completion of the course of study is of no great value. Such students gravitate to the Real schools, which according to the regulations "afford young men an education capable of immediate prac tical application" or "prepare them for the higher professional schools." But it is stated on good authority that the Real schools, even with the supplementary seventh class, with its mechanico-technical and chemico-technical divisions, give so little firm foundation for efficient knowledge that few manufacturers are willing to employ the Realschool students, and either seek for those who have had instruction in technical schools, viz, the higher industrial schools, or prefer to take workmen who have learned their trade by personal observation and experience. The Real schools are few in number, less than 100 in 1887, while the gym. nasia number more than 230. Technical and industrial schools numbered at that date less than 50, but so great has been the call for such training, and so manifest is the growth during the past quarter of a century of the so-called Russian system of mechanical art1 education, that these schools now present a most interesting development. The progress attained during this period is so marked that an extended report of technical and industrial education by M. Anopoff, of the Nicholas Industrial School in St. Petersburg, has aroused great interest in England and other countries. A digest of the same is given as an addendum to this statement of education in Russia.

Students desiring an academic education pass from the gymnasia to the universities. These latter institutions differ somewhat in methods in the different localities, but the present status of the faculties may be gathered from the following statement:

The prerequisites required by the state commission for examination or examining board, are quite voluminous, but a general digest of the

'It may be stated here that the workshop is the foundation of the Russian system of industrial art. The village industry is the form which such mechanical art takes. The Russian makes the art the fundamental and builds his trade on that. He realizes that there are certain general practices underlying instruction, and that one can not teach art without teaching the constructions depending upon them. He believes that the true place for mechanical arts is in the school while the student pursues his studies, and that manual instruction should be a part of the school course. Hence he has established the workshop and has formulated a system which is viewed with interest everywhere and has been generally adopted in different parts of the United States, commencing in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, at the Institute of Technology, and extending westward and southward to other schools. * The gradual changes in university organization with the reform movements taking place from time to time, are clearly brought out in "Die Reform der russischen Universitäten nach dem Gesetz vom 23. August 1884." The main points are here interpolated. University laws were passed in 1835 and 1862-63, those for Dorpat in 1865, but not satisfying the higher functionaries, other efforts at reform were made in 1871-72 under Minister Tolstoi, the university officials being asked to specify

*Vid. President J. D. Runkle before the N. E. A. in 1877.