an appearance so imposing had perhaps never yet presented itself to the French: the cavalry of the Mamelukes were covered with resplendent armour. Beyond their left were beheld the celebrated pyramids, of which the imperishable mass has survived so many empires, and braved for more than thirty centuries the outrages of time. Behind their right was the Nile, the city of Cairo, the hills of Mokattam, and the fields of the ancient Memphis.

When Buonaparte had given his last orders, "Go,” said he, pointing to the pyramids, "and think that from the height of those monuments forty ages survey our conduct." The armies, impatient to come to an action, soon closed with each other; and the Mamelukes were speedily overcome. The village of Embaba was then attacked, and carried at the point of the bayonet. Fifteen hundred Mamelukes perished in the field, or were drowned in the Nile; 40 pieces of cannon, 400 camels, and the baggage, stores, and provisions in the camp fell into the hands of the conquerors. The latter were particularly acceptable; the French army having for fifteen days subsisted on vegetables without bread. The personal booty was immense; the horses of the slain Mamelukes, the splendid armour of their masters, and the contents of their well-lined purses, in some measure consoled the troops for their former privations. This battle was followed on the succeeding day, 23d July, by the surrender of Cairo upon capitulation; and the conquest of Lower Egypt was accomplished. By the term conquest is here to be understood, not a peaceful domination secured by the faith of treaties; not one exercised over a population gained by kindness, clemency, and good faith; but a military occupation of the most important positions; the communications between which required to be maintained and established by a cordon of flying troops. Still, it must be admitted, that the immediate objects of the Egyptian expedition seemed to have been attained; and, considering the nature of the country, its destructive climate; the harassing description of the warfare with the Mamelukes and Arabs; and the intense sufferings of the French army from the want of provisions,

water, and secure places of repose, after its fatigues and losses; the military reputation of Buonaparte, which the results of the Italian campaigns had already exalted to an equality with the renown of the most eminent commanders who have at once astonished and plagued mankind, was increased rather than diminished.

We have now to contemplate this extraordinary man in a novel and trying situation. Cut off from all communication with France, and reduced to depend upon the resources of his own powerful mind, which were incessantly called forth to oppose not only natural difficulties, but domestic and foreign opposition, the fleet of Lord Nelson, which had actually reached Alexandria three days before the arrival of the French armament, and, upon false intelligence, had proceeded from thence to Rhodes, and afterwards towards Sicily, having received more correct information, returned to the bay of Aboukir, where it had found the French squadron at anchor. On the 1st August was fought the decisive conflict which annihilated the French squadron, insulated the French army, electrified all Europe, cemented a new and more formidable coalition against France, and contributed, with other brilliant achievements, to place Lord Nelson in the same niche in the temple of glory as Andrew Doria, De Ruyter, Van Tromp, and Blake.

In the mean time fortune favoured the enterprizes of the French army. Murad and Ibrahim Bey, the Mameluke chiefs, had divided their forces soon after the battle of Embaba. The former proceeded towards Upper Egypt, and the latter towards Syria, rallying in his retreat 4000 Mamelukes, and expecting to be joined by a still greater number.

Against Ibrahim Buonaparte marched, and soon obliged him to retire; after which the French general retraced his steps to Cairo. It was after his return that Napoleon held that famous conversation with the Mufti and Imans of Cairo, in a flattened vault of the pyramid called Cheops. The tone of arrogance he assumed on this occasion was unwarrantable; and Ꭼ Ꮞ

he would hardly have dared to address in that style any but the most ignorant and debased of the species.

We must now return to the operations of Desaix's division, which was attacked at the village of Lediemar, in Upper Egypt, by a force of Mamelukes, headed by Murad Bey. After the battle, which was fierce, the French, although the advantage was on their side, still remained in a situation of considerable danger. The real utility of many of Buonaparte's schemes would, but for the dishonourable nature of the expedition, and the habitual severity of his government, entitle him to particular commendation.

The commerce which had for ages been carried on through the medium of caravans between the central part of Africa and Cairo, had languished, from the ferocity of the Arabs, the exactions of the Mamelukes, and the disorder which pervaded every branch of the administration. The powerful aid of Napoleon was extended for the protection of the merchants; and this trade, so beneficial and interesting to the inhabitants of Egypt, in a great measure revived. The savans who accompanied the army were detached upon services immediately connected with the branches of science they professed; and Buonaparte meditated a journey to Suez to explore, in person, the vestiges of that famous canal, the formation of which had successively engaged the labours and excited the curiosity of Cambyses, Alexander, and the Ptolemies, when his attention was recalled to a nearer interest. This was no other than the insurrection at Cairo on the 21st October; in which it is extremely probable that the French were themselves the first aggressors, and misconstrued, or chose to misinterpret, the assembling of the inhabitants for a religious ceremony into a rebellious movement. Pursuing the same system of terror which had rendered him so formidable and detested in Italy, Buonaparte assembled his troops, cannonaded the streets with grape-shot, forced open the gates of the mosques, the principal of which, and other stations of the insurgents, were set on fire, and massacred a great number of the people. Having thus put his iron curb into the mouths of

his subjects, the French General proceeded to anticipate the attack which impended upon him on the side of Syria. Ibrahim Bey had withdrawn with his treasures to Djezzar Pacha, at Acre, who had received him with the greatest cordiality, and made preparations for the invasion of Egypt, as a prelude to which, he had taken possession of the Port of El Arish, in the neighbourhood of Suez.

Having, with his usual energy, completed his preparations for the Syrian campaign, and with his wonted foresight garrisoned the most important positions in his rear, and stationed the remainder of his troops in such a manner as to ensure the subjection of Egypt during his absence, Buonaparte set out, accompanied by a force of about 10,000 men. The first operation was the capture of the Fort of El Arish, garrisoned by 2500 troops of Djezzar. The attack of this fortress lasted from the 6th to the 20th February, 1799, when the garrison capitulated. The conquest of El Arish was a point of the first importance to Buonaparte. It was like the ancient Pelusium the key of Egypt on that side. The army then proceeded, and suffered inconceivably during a march of sixty leagues over burning sands, with a very scanty supply of water. Having at length passed the desert which divides Egypt from Palestine, the army advanced to Gaza, of which they took possession, with all its magazines and stores. From thence they marched to Jaffa, a strong and very important place in the direct road to Acre, and garrisoned by a great number of Turkish soldiers, in which a train of artillery, sent to Djezzar by the Grand Seignior, was deposited. The siege commenced, but was of short duration. Jaffa was carried by storm, and the whole garrison, more numerous than the French army, was put to the sword. Circumstances of the most aggravated and atrocious cruelty and breach of faith attended this infamous massacre. The following account is given by Mr. Buckingham of this transaction in an interesting volume of Travels in Palestine, recently published. Describing a visit to Jaffa, Mr. B. remarks:

"The fact of Buonaparte's having murdered his prisoners

in cold blood had been doubted, from the mere circumstances of the consul having omitted to mention it; though he had not been once questioned as to the point. This, however, I was resolved to do; and, in reply, we were assured by this same consul's son, Damiani, himself an old man of sixty, and a spectator of all that passed here during the French invasion, that such massacre did really take place, and twenty mouths were opened at once to confirm the tale.

"It was related to us that Buonaparte had issued a decree, ordering that no one should be permitted to pass freely without having a written protection bearing his signature; but publishing, at the same time, an assurance that this should be granted to all who would apply for it on a given day. The multitude confided in the promise, and were collected on the appointed day, without the city, to the number of ten or twelve hundred persons, including men, women, and children. They were then ordered on an eminence, and there arrayed in battalion, under pretence of counting them one by one. When all was ready, the troops were ordered to fire upon them, and only a few escaped their destructive vollies. Α similar scene was transacted on the bed of the rocks before the port, where about three hundred persons were either shot or driven to perish in the sea; as if to renew the deeds of treacherous murder which the men of Joppe had of old practised on the Jews."

The character of Buonaparte has been powerfully assailed, and but weakly defended, for this atrocious act. After making allowance for mutual misrepresentation, the plain facts of the case appear to be, that no capitulation was sought or granted; that among the garrison were many Turkish troops who had been taken prisoners at El Arish, and dismissed on their parole. These troops having been taken in arms before they were exchanged, had forfeited their lives to the conqueror, by all the established laws of hostility in civilized countries. The remainder of the garrison not having capitulated, although innocent of the breach of faith imputed to their companions, were, however, like them, by the strict construction of the