comes over to England he is found to work harder than the English; the higher wages in England stimulating him to greater exertion. It is not, however, an uncommon error for persons, observing that great commercial prosperity and a high price of food are generally found together, to suppose that the commercial prosperity of every country is occasioned by the scarcity of food enforcing general industry,* and to consider that a country is able to manufacture cheaper in proportion as its food is dear; and that, "in order to advance trade, provisions must be rendered so dear as to enforce general industry." Mr. Sadler, in support of this theory, adduced the fact, that in those years when there is a scarcity of provisions in Ireland, there is an increased exportation from that country of linens and other manufactured goods—a fact that may be thus explained :-It is evident, that for the goods imported into Ireland some equivalent must be exported, to pay for them. Now, when * Sadler, Locke, Ray, &c. Vide "Ireland, its Evils, and their Remedies," pp. 337, 338. the agricultural produce falls short, to supply their deficiency there must be an increased exportation of linens and other manufactured goods. Also the farmer,-who, in ordinary years, after paying his rent and providing food for his family, has a surplus remaining, with which he is enabled to purchase various additional comforts,— in years of scarcity, when his harvest fails, is forced to deprive himself of numerous conveniences that he was before in the habit of enjoying. There is consequently a smaller demand for such articles in Ireland. Thus there will be a greater abundance of manufactured goods in the market, and a smaller quantity of agricultural produce, than in ordinary years, when it is natural to expect that more of the former and less of the latter would be exported. To suppose that the cheapness of any article can be caused by the high price paid for the food of those who produce it, is a fallacy of the grossest magnitude. Were this the case, we should have manufacturers petitioning for corn laws, to enable them to undersell foreigners. The fact, however, is, that all things fabricated by pure manual labour are generally cheapest where the price of labour is lowest; the cheapness of manufactured articles where labour is dear being attributable to the agency of science and capital. The more complicated productions of art are generally cheapest where profits are lowest, the rate of profits having a greater influence over their price than the rate of wages. In the production of any article, the wages of labour have to be paid only once; but as most commodities pass through several hands before they reach the consumer, profits have often to be paid many times. Thus there may be the dealer in the raw material, the merchant, the wholesale and retail dealer, all of whom receive profit for the capital they employ and the risk they incur; indeed, where much machinery is employed, wages do not necessarily form a large proportion of the expenses of the manufacturer; for although all machinery is the result of labour, the returns that the manufacturer obtains from it are regulated by the rate of profits, and not by the price of labour. If 100 men, by the aid of science and capital, are enabled to do the work of 500, the master can afford to give the 100 men higher wages than if he was obliged to employ 500 to do the same work; for here the labour of 100 men has to be paid for out of what is equal to the produce of 500. In other words, science and machinery has enabled the work to be performed cheaper, notwithstanding the high rate of wages, and not in consequence of it. But when a master gives higher wages to his workmen, it is seldom that the price he pays for labour (calculated in the amount and quality of the work done) is raised quite in the same proportion as the rise of wages,* for the better pay will excite the labourer to greater care, diligence, and attention. Thus, though a labourer in one country may receive higher wages than the labourer in another country, yet the work done by the high-paid workman may perhaps be greater in amount or of better quality, so that the price of labour will not generally rise quite * This, of course, is not intended to apply to mere temporary fluctuations. in the same proportion as the nominal rate of wages. It is important to bear in mind that high wages are the cause of industry, and not industry the cause of high wages; for although the diligence or skill of the individual labourer may be the immediate cause of his receiving a higher scale of wages, yet it was the prospect of the higher reward that first led him to exert himself. Now if the general increase of industry throughout a country occasions the manufactured comforts and conveniences of life to multiply faster than the population advances, there will be a greater amount of these comforts and conveniences to be divided among the same number of persons; or, in other words, a greater amount of these comforts and conveniences will be purchaseable with the same amount of money or of labour; so that, not only the industry of the individual labourer will raise the scale of his own remuneration, but the increased quantity or improved quality of the articles produced will render these articles cheaper or better to all their It is evident, therefore, that as far consumers. |