The English Mechanic conditions determine really the size of the (being so general a statement) that each AND WORLD OF SCIENCE AND ART. FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 1, 1878. ARTICLES. RESISTANCE AND LARGE BY J. T. Sprague. IN all electrical calculations and formulæ it is the practice to treat the resistance of the wire or conductor as a constant; that is to say, if a wire measures one ohm resistance, it is considered to present equal resistance to currents of all magnitudes. For the purposes of ordinary calculations, or mathematical formulæ, this is quite correct, but as I have frequently had occasion to remark, mathematics are a valuable servant, but a very bad master, and one evil of the general practice of putting facts and principles into formulæ is that very many minds rest upon the formula, believing them to be explanations in such cases these mathematical expressions wrap up and hide the truth. The resistance of a length of wire will be one ohm, whether one veber or 100 is passing along it, and yet that wire presents entirely different obstacles to the passage of those currents. We call it equal in both cases because we measure it by comparison with a measured unit which is affected by both currents in the same manner as the conducting wire itself is, and because the measure itself is based upon and includes unit conditions. power. The mechanical equivalent (Joulad) of the veber per second in 1 ohm is 735, or on my figures 737ft.-lb., or 44-24 per minute. A horse-power being 33,000ft.-lb. per minute, and the total resistance 2.5 ohms, we have 13,200ft.-lb. expended per ohm, which, divided by 44-24, gives 298 37 as the square of the current, and a current of 17-273 vebers to maintain the light. I repeat these figures are purely approximate, or even hypothetical, but that is of no consequence for the present purpose; and I may add that as I work with logarithms, and so utilise all fractions, my results will differ slightly from those worked out by simple decimals. unit available for the conductor. These therefore calculate this upon the assumption I have made this long quotation because it expresses very distinctly the various points I am about to deal with, and because it prevents any doubt as to the actual errors existing upon the subject. The formula for the heat developed by the passage of a current through a resistance (or more properly, through a conductor of a certain resistance) is that it is proportional But the real meaning of resistance after to the resistance and to the square of the all is, a something which requires the concurrent. The current cannot pass without sumption of energy to overcome it. developing this heat-that is to say, it Regarded from this point of view, the expends this amount of energy in forcing resistance of a given conductor is not con- its way through the conductor, and therefore stant for all currents; it is not even pro- this is perfectly analogous to mechanical portional to the currents, but it is pro- friction, and to requote Mr. Siemens, "Elecportional to the square of the currents. In tricity is (not) conducted upon the conditions this and in all I am about to say, I leave appertaining to a pipe conveying a ponderout of consideration altogether the altera-able fluid, the resistance of which increases tion of the measured resistance by heat with the square of the velocity of flow." developed in the conductor itself, but assume-in order to simplify the subject by looking at one aspect at a time-that this heat is dissipated so as to keep the conductor at a constant temperature. I am not fighting shadows, for even so great an electrical authority as Mr. Siemens has been mystified, and, in supporting his suggestion that power may be transmitted to a distance by means of electrical currents, has been led to enunciate principles which are misleading. I quote from his Glasgow lecture (p. 28): : It is true that there is some little confusion of ideas in Mr. Siemens' last remark that the energy lost in the conductor is proportional to that transmitted, just because the energy itself is proportional to the square of the current, while the resistance relates simply to the current. The secret of the error is no doubt the overlooking of the fact that in order that a current may be passed at an increased rate through a given conductor the electromotive force must be increased in the same ratio; wherever any action increases as the square of some one of its elements, it is always because there are two conditions increasing equally, just as radiant forces weaken as the square of the distance, not from any attribute of force, but simply because the surface on which they are acting-that is, of the spheres they fill-increases as the square of their radii or distance from the centre, The principal objection that has been raised by electricians to the conveyance of power to distances of miles is on account of the apparently rapid increase in the size of the conductor required in the increase of distance. In order that the magneto-electrical machine may work under the most favourable conditions, it should have an internal resistance depending in a great Let us now work out Mr. Siemens' own measure upon the nature of the work to data, and compare the relative conditions of be performed, but not exceeding for quan- 1, 100, 1,000 lights of equal power by means titative effects one ohm or unit of resist of a machine of 1 ohm internal resistance, ance. By another law, the electrical resist- a conductor of 5 ohm, and lamps of each ance of the circuit exterior to the machine 1 ohm resistance, remembering that I do should be somewhat, but not much, larger not myself set forth or sustain any of the than the internal resistance-say, 1 unit. data, but merely deal with figures used by The external resistance is composed of two Mr. Siemens, except that he has not furelements-viz., the conductor and the re- nished one essential item-viz., the current sistance of the electric lamp or magnetic required to maintain the light; in fact, this engine, which latter may be taken as does not seem to have been measured as yet amounting to 1 unit, leaving only half a with any approach to definiteness. I will VOL. XXVIII.-NO. 710. We have then here 1 horse-power expended in the given conditions, and 13,200ft.-lb. or 4 horse-power utilised, this being the relation which the resistance of the lamp, 1 ohm, bears to the total resistance, 2:5 ohms. It would be impossible to so utilise 100 lamps, and still more 1,000, as to maintain the proper relations of internal and external resistance, because it is not practicable to have more than 3 or 4 in series, and it is not really wise to have more than 1; but this does not hold good with motor engines, which may be in any desired series; so I will give the argument the benefit of this, simply remarking that with lights the results would come out much worse. It must also be remembered that the resistance of a motor is not a constant figure, as all the work it does counts and acts exactly as a resistance as well as the wire; but the calculation assumes that this is included in the 1 ohm resistance for each. To make 100 machines or lights each of 1 ohm resistance give a compound resistance of 1 ohm they must be arranged in 10 sets of 10 each: we require to develop in each of these sets a current capable of parting with 4 of a horse-power at each machine-that is to say, 40 x 10 = 400, and this we have to develop and expend in transmitting through a resistance of 15 machine and conductor. Mr. Siemens says, correctly, that "the conductor itself (which includes also the generating machine) retains a certain amount proportional to that transmitted. That is to say, the engine must expend 1,000 horse-power to transmit 400." This assumes, too, perfect conditions, no loss in the transformations of energy, no leakage on the road. Hence this figure would probably be doubled in actual operations. It is needless to go into the 1,000-fold figures, as the proportionate loss remains the same, Further on Mr. Siemens refers to his proposal to transmit "1,000 horse-power a distance of 30 miles through a conductor 3in. in diameter. The electrical resistance of this conductor would be 18 of a unit, and, supposing that the total resistance in circuit was made, 2:5 units, which, as I before stated, gives a favourable working condition, it follows that •18 would be expended in heating the con- This refers to the potential heat of coal, supposing it were all transferred to the copper. But it is desirable to consider what would become of the machine developing the power. We have: Total resistance 1:32 Now, assuming that we are to develop 1,000 horse-power in this 1-32 resistance, we have: Useful work 1.32 Heat in conductor '18 machine 1 = 1000 h.-p. = 136.36 = 757.57 Horse-power expended 1893.93 Here, again, we leave out of consideration all loss in conversion and leakage; and this would probably double the amount. It appears, then, that having a free gift from nature in a waterfall 30 miles away, to utilise it as 1,000 horse-power we must provide: 1. Dynamic converters, capable of deveoping 1,000 horse-power. 2. 1,900 tons of copper rod, properly nsulated. 3. A dynamo-electric apparatus capable of generating a current representing at starting 2,000 horse-power. 4. Means of cooling that machine, and dissipating rapidly a constant energy equal to 758 horse-power. It becomes a very serious question whether it would not be desirable to look that gift-horse (power) in the mouth. Without going into figures it really seems that it would be cheaper to buy steam or gas engines, and pay for coal to do the work on the spot. 66 influence of the Sun on the Moon herself; ELECTRIC LIGHTING.* round the common centre of gravity of herself and the Moon; from the disturbing WE need scarcely inform our readers that the pamphlet whose title we give by the Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites; by below is a far more useful brochure than observations of the relative perturbing any of the reports issued by engineers or power exercised by the Earth on other surveyors of local authorities, and is in members of the Solar System, her mass being reality more encouraging to shareholders known; by observations of the parallactic in gas companies than the assurances of displacement of the minor planet Ariadne- their directors. The excitement is beginand so on. In "Drifting Light-waves we ning to cool down, and those who have inhave the astounding measurements of ap- vested in gas shares are at last beginning proach and recess of various heavenly to reflect that even if the electric lamp does bodies, made by the Spectroscope, rendered oust our old servant from the streets, coalplain to the meanest capacity. Essay Five gas is of so much value for other purposes The New Star, which faded into Star- that there will always be a demand for it. mist"-tells the strange story of the body In this pamphlet Mr. Sprague explains in which blazed out in the Constellation Cyg- a very concise and readable manner the nus in November, 1876, only to dissolve into question as it stands, and gives figures and gas a month or two later. Of the lecture calculations as to the relative cost of gas which forms the sixth essay we need say no and the electric light, which are calculated more here than that we reported it at the to reassure the investor and prevent him time of its delivery, and that it will be found from becoming altogether like wax in the hands of the wire-pullers on the Stock Ex in our 11th Volume. So far, we have been concerned with the change. It seems to be quite certain that Heavens above. We now come down to many erroneous statements as to the cost the Earth beneath, and to the waters under of the new light have been made, and even the Earth. "Mallet's Theory of Volca- in such a work as that of M. Fontaine, noes," which forms the subject of Essay which we reviewed last week, no really tion of the leading features of volcanic Mr. Sprague, however, does give an esti Seven, affords a very plausible explana- definite information is given on the point. phenomena. We confess, though, that we mate of the cost of the two systems which rather fail to see why the heated or incan- are at present attracting most attentiondescent nucleus should always shrink under the Jablochkoff and the Lontin-and the the same points on the Earth's surface. To result is in favour of gas. The Jablochkoff take a single example: it is 1799 years candle gives a light said to be equal to 80 PLEASANT WAYS IN SCIENCE* since Pompeii was destroyed by the erup- Carcel burners, but it appears that on a trial UND INDER the remarkably appropriate title tion of Mount Vesuvius, and this mountain before the jury the light was found to be which heads this notice Mr. Proctor has is active at the instant of our writing these equal to only 500 standard candles. The collected seventeen more of his delightful lines. Essays Eight and Nine-"Towards use of a globe, Mr. Sprague calculates, rescientific essays, from the Contemporary the North Pole" and "A Mighty Sea- duces the illuminating power to an effective Review, the Cornhill and Gentleman's Maga-wave"-deal with Arctic discovery and with of 300 candles, and the estimate is thus zines, Belgravia, and Chambers's Journal; the tremendous undulation which crossed put: "Ordinary gas, burnt properly, will adding to them as an eighteenth the official the Pacific in May, 1876, respectively. give the light of 14 candles for 5ft. per report of the lecture on Star-grouping, Essay Ten, on " Strange Sea Creatures," is hour; that is, 1,000ft. give a light equal to Star-drift, and Star-mist" (which has since as interesting as a novel. Our author's 2,800 candles for an hour, at a cost of-say, become famous), delivered by him before remarkable hypothesis in connection with 3s. 4d. Assuming that an electric light the Royal Institution in May, 1870. We the Sea-serpent must be sought in his book gives a net effect of 300 candles, and that have spoken of the fitness of the title of itself. Those who wish to understand how its cost is only 8d. per hour, the cost of the Mr. Proctor's most recent volume; for it telegraphic messages may be sent both same 2,800 candles is 6s. 24d. With naked would be difficult to conceive ways more ways at once along the same wire; and lights, however, the cost of gas would be pleasant than those by which our author how fac-similes of writing or drawing may somewhat greater for equal amount of leads those who entrust themselves to his be transmitted to any distance; or to com- light." We cannot prove that 8d. an hour guidance through the "green fields and pas- prehend the principles on which those two is too high for the electric light, but it will tures new" of the results of recent scientific modern acoustic marvels-the Telephone be noticed that the gas is to be "burnt proresearch. Men and women of average and the Phonograph-act, will find an ad- perly," so that perhaps the truth is that a general culture, who are prevented by want mirable popular explanation of all these Jablochkoff candle costs as much, or a of special knowledge or lack of opportunity things in Essays Eleven and Twelve, "On trifle more than gas. But it must be refrom going to the fountain-head for such some Marvels in Telegraphy," and "The membered that the present arrangements results, may well be thankful to a writer Phonograph or Voice-recorder." Essay for lighting the streets with gas can be conwho both can and will place them before siderably improved by burning the gas their eyes in so perspicuous, apprehensible, under the best conditions, and at the same and interesting a form. time it should not be forgotten that electric lighting is little better than a new dis covery, and may fairly be expected to improve until it becomes the recognised means of illuminating public streets. Mr. Sprague points out that the current cannot easily be sent to any great distance, for if the size of the conductor is increased to reduce the resistance, the tendency to leakage increases in a greater ratio, while with alternating currents the inductive resistance may possibly prove an absolute barrier for distances above, say, 500 yards. In a postscript Mr. Sprague shows how erroneous are the statements of the New York press. "Neither Mr. Edison nor any one else can override the well-known laws of nature, and when he is made to say, 'the same wire which brings you light will also bring you power and heat,' there is no difficulty in seeing that more is promised than can pos sibly be performed." There is, perhaps, no insuperable difficulty in heating a frying pan by the electric current and keeping it hot enough to cook a steak or a chop, but it is very much cheaper to use wood, or coal, or gas, and the proposition is correctly special mode of diet. If it be true that the Thirteen," The Gorilla and other Apes," discusses the affinity of Man with those who have been called his " poor relations." The The first essay deals with the supposed fourteenth Article, "On the use and abuse discovery by Dr. Henry Draper, of New of Food," may be studied with advantage York, of the gas Oxygen in the Sun, where by some of our correspondents who propose it had previously remained undetected. to rectify all human physical ills by a Whether, though, the bright lines seen and photographed by Dr. Draper are the lines of oxygen, or whether they may not be a mere result of contrast as occurring between certain dark lines, is still a moot point, upon which further evidence seems to be needed. In Essay Two, on " Sunspot, Storm, and Famine," another ugly gash is made in the already well-punctured bladder of (what one of our correspondents has christened) The volume concludes with a curious "sunspottery." This is an article which we paper on Ancient Babylonian Astrogony, would commend to the perusal of all who into which is incidentally introduced a believe in the bona fides of the demand for discussion with regard to the Babylonian a Solar Physical Observatory-for, at once legends of the Creation, from which the temperate and exhaustive, it tears into condensed (and so-called Mcsaic) one in our shreds and tatters the pretences upon Bible was derived. The results of the which the establishment of such an obser- labours of the late Mr. George Smith are vatory has been urged. In "New Ways of freely employed by our author in his treatMeasuring the Sun's Distance" are de- ment of this very remarkable subject. scribed the methods of determining the As we have given very little more than Solar Parallax from observations of Mars in an index to the volume under review, we and near opposition; from the measurement can only hope that our notice of it may be of the little orbit described by the Earth employed like any other index-i.e., merely as a reference to the book itself. It will well repay perusal. Pleasant Ways in Science. By RICHARD A. PROCTOR. London: Chatto and Windus. role fofluence upon Gas Interests. By J. T. SPRAGUE, Electric Lighting: its State and Progress, and its M.S.T.E. London: E. and F. N. SPON. Day of Month. Souths. Right Ascen- Declination South. Sidereal 8. h. m. s. a.m h. m. s. 111 43 42 09,, 14 26 16 14 29 611 43 45-57., 14 46 h. m. 38 14 42 33.68 216 2 36 15 2 16:45 11 11 44 964,, 15 6 917 28 53 15 21 59 23 16 11 44 55 03,, 15 26 37 18 47 39 15 41 42-02 21 11 46 1-76,, 15 47 27 19 58 5 16 1 24 80 26 11 47 28 85,, 16 24 16 21 759 " 8 37 20 59 Mercury will thus start from a point just to the Is a morning Star during the entire month. The Moon Ceres will thus travel in a direction roughly from y Ceti to a Piscium. Juno Is in much the same position as Pallas, and the observations which apply to one planet are equally suitable to the other. Day of Month. h. m. h. m. 1 13 55.0 10 29.7 6 14 19:0 12 44.2 11 14 43:3 14 51.0 at the end of November in Scorpio. She will Juno is in Aquarius too. She will be about 14° the 30th. Mars Occultations of (and Near Approaches to) Fixed Stars by the Moon. Name of 5 B.A.C. 8276 5 22 Piscium Mag. Disappear- Moon's ance. Limb. Angle from Angle Vertex. Reappearance. Moon's Limb. Angle from Is an evening Star, and moderately well placed for the observer. His ring system continues to close up slowly. Angle N. Point. Vertex. Day of month. h. 3 34.6 3 38.9 3 42.2 9 20 p.m. Bright 301 11 58 Bright 269 4 37, Bright 308 309 26 23 50.3 3 44 4 3 45'6 3 45.8 8 7.2 " 7 47.2 7 27.3 271 Saturn thus remains in Pisces to the S.W. of the First Point of Aries. Is still, for the observer's purpose, invisible. Is now rapidly approaching the west, and must be looked for as soon after dusk as he can be caught, to be seen at all. He is as badly placed as ever for the observer. Right Declination Souths. 30 B.A.C. 7697 6 +8 8p.m. SE Bun at the beginning, and having tremendous Is visible all night long, and is well placed travel towards the East, through the blank South Declination at the end of it. Jupiter's Satellites. h. m. s. 9 28 0 39 XXIII.; and that of finding the instant of its Shooting Stars Should be watched for from the 12th to the 15th, on the 19th, 28th, and 30th. The student will, as a matter of course, keep sedulous watch 5 56 25 p.m. for the shower of the Leonides after midnight on the 13th. We must emphasize the words "after midnight," inasmuch as the radiant of this wonderful stream does not rise above our horizon until about 12 o'clock. It is needless here to repeat the thrice-told tale of the strange connection of these bodies with Comet I. of 1866, in whose orbit they travel. 5 44 O Tr I 6 37 0 Sh I PERCIVAL'S PATENT PORTABLE PIANOFORTE. AMONGST recent improvements in piano- FIG.I middle of the compass. By this arrangement it is possible to play with both hands on either side of the instrument, while for certain effects the doubled notes in the centre third of the compass will obviously be found of considerable value. If deemed desirable the dimensions of the instrument could be reduced by merely dividing the usual 7-octave board, but as four and a half octaves on each side can be accommodated in moderate dimen. sions it is preferred to make use of the advantages afforded by the doubled notes. The back or frame is strung on both sides, but as the strain tends to keep it together, the "bracings" are of very slight scantling, one iron bar being sufficient to enable them to withstand the pull of the strings. Fig. 2 represents a transverse section of the instrument, showing the mode of arranging the strings, which, it will be noticed, are carried over brass-sheathed iron tubing to the wrest-pins. For convenience in tuning, it is preferred to have two wrest-pins to each string, as in the treble notes especially the wires are unusually long. One form of action is shown in the engraving on one side of the instrument, the hammers on the other side being omitted for the sake of clearness; but as a matter of fact it does not represent the action actually employed. The depth of the instrument-i.e., from the front to the back, is 3ft. 6in.; the height, without stand, 2ft. 5in.; and width over all, 14 in.; the distance between the tops of the black keys on opposite sides being only 9in. It will be readily understood that even when placed on a stand the new pianoforte occupies but a small space, while it can be easily put into an ordinary cab for transport here and there. The volume of tone is not, of course, equal to that of a grand, but it is much greater than might be expected from a consideration of the small size of the instrument, while the quality is superior to the general run of good pianos, the double soundboard no doubt exercising considerable effect in assisting the singing power of the instrument. Little if any difficulty is experienced by players in adapting themselves to the vertical fingering, while they readily appreIciate the advantages afforded by the new instrument, enabling them, as it does, to sit in almost any desired position, even to reclining in an easy chair. 12 33.7 1 h. m. 2 264 6 2.25.8 12 31 0 h. m. 11 41.9 p.m. 11 21.8 Neptune is, therefore, still in the barren region in Aries occupied by him during his present apparition. of Greenwich Mean Time of Southing Souths. h. m. S. FIG. 2 reason considered objectionable, especially so which will be understood from the annexed when he became his own accompanyist; but engravings and the following description. It Mr. Percival has removed that objection, and at will be remembered that in the electric tele5 27 52.89 p.m. the same time made the instrument portable phone invented by Prof. Bell, a straight rod that is to say, its weight does not exceed one of iron or steel with a coil round one end is hundredweight. Fig. 1 is a perspective view employed, the rod being a permanent magnet of the instrument, mounted on a low stand, and or rendered magnetic by a battery, the plate drawn up to the fireside, or to any part of the armature being attached to a block of wood, room the performer may select. As will be seen in connection with a speaking or hearing tube. it has exactly the same kind of keyboard as the The present improvements consist in the common pianoforte, with the keys vertical employment of a tubular magnet in place of instead of horizontal, and exactly the same the solid rod, and in attaching the plate to compass, with this difference, that there are 21 that pole of the magnet which has formerly duplicate notes. The bass strings are arranged been unused. Fig. 1 shows a vertical section on the left-hand side, the treble on the right, of one form of tubular magnet telephone in with four and a half octaves of keys on each which N S is the tubular magnet, which can side. The order of progression is from the be used in place of the hearing or speaking lowest bass note at the bottom of the left-hand tube previously employed, and which also side to the highest treble at the bottom of the serves as a handle, by means of which the teleright hand-the duplicate notes occupying the phone can be lifted to the mouth or ear as re 918 3.85 9 49 30:02 of determining the Local Mean quired. B is the plate of iron which can be vibrated in front of the pole, S, of the magnet; D is a wooden support to which the plate, B, is affixed; and E a coil of insulated wire. Fig. 2 shows another form of tubular magnet telephone in which the plate, B, is attached to the pole, N, of the tubular magnet, N S, and is free to vibrate in the neighbourhood of the pole, S. The tubular magnets may be constructed of iron, or steel, or of any substance capable of forming a magnet, and may be either permanently magnetised or magnetised by the influence of a battery current. It will be understood also that the shape of the magnet may be varied in a variety of ways; for instance, the tubular magnet may be flattened as in Fig. 3, or lengthened as in Fig. 4. Fig. 3 represents a portable form of telephone somewhat similar in shape to a watch, which can be carried in the pocket for testing purposes. Fig. 5 is a perspective view of the same form of apparatus composed of a compound tubular magnet made in sections. The coil, E, may also be varied in construction; for instance, it may be flat and short, as in Fig. 1; or it may be lengthened, as in Fig. 2; or it may fill up the whole interior of the telephone, as in Figs. 3, 4, and 5. The improvements also consist in FIGI FIG. 2 คล FIG. 4 The name of Apache appears to be a generic term applied to several Indian tribes, as Comanches, Navajos or Tenni ("men"), Mojaves, Hualapacs, Yumas or "Sons of the River" (Colorado), Yampais, Cosninos, Talchidimes, Tamajoes, Crusados, and Nijoras. The Apaches proper call themselves Shis Inday or "Men of the Woods." They overrun rather than inhabit a vast territory of uncertain boundaries extending from the Great Salt Lake in the north, where they are known as Apaches of Xilla and Navajos, to the south in the direction of Chihuaha, where they have the appellation of Apaches of Parillo; and from California and Sonora in the west they extend to Texas and New Mexico on the east, where they are known as Apaches Vagneros. They are brave and resolute, fond of their wild liberty, and enemies of tyranny and oppression. They revolted from the Spanish dominion in the 17th century, and afterwards became the allies, but not the subjects, of the Spaniards up to the time the Americans took the country from the latter. The Government of the United States find they cover their body with a layer of mud. themselves in a similar position with respect to They generally indulge in the luxury of some of the Indian tribes in their territory. mocassins, but as to clothing properly so-called These will not yield to the influences of the they study only vanity and coquetry, not health advancing civilisation and settle down to or modesty-the men to show some trophy of industrious and profitable pursuits, and the murder or rapine; the young women to be esusual penalty of such a course is gradually teemed for a coloured rag, for a bark petticoat, or coming upon them. Amongst the races with a fleece which they have industriously softened which the Americans are now contending are and ornamented with bars and lines. Some of the Apaches, and before they disappear a casual them tattoo the chin: their highest ornamennotice of them is not without interest. tation is to daub themselves with very bright colours, which are not placed in danger by frequency of ablution. Whether it arise from dirtiness or because they feed on flesh-principally that of horse, ass, and mule-these hippophagi emit such a penetrating odour that the horses, and the mules more especially, get away as soon as these Apaches appear. Their huts (of sugarloaf form), encumbered at their approaches with masses of putrid carrion and focal matters, are formed of poles or branches supported one against the other, interlaced with brushwood and foliage, covered with skins, turf, and flat stones. In the severe season these Apaches take refuge in caves; but they only find themselves at ease in the open air, and are oppressed under a roof or between walls. They only really enjoy life when in their incessant expeditions. When the nights are too cold or the wind too severe they roll themselves up in some hole and sleep for hours. The Apaches despise nothing that is eatable. They make use of various nuts, fruits, berries, bulbs, and roots; they collect certain berries and roots that increase spontaneously, and they even make holes where they insert grains of maize, but almost the whole of their nourishment is animal. Everything is game to them: deer, stags, wild sheep, quails, squirrels, rats, mice, grubs, and serpents. They have no false delicacy. They only question quality in the midst of abundance, and select only when in superfluity. When their nourishment is such as they like, these savages gorge themselves, swallowing enormous morsels. But abundance has only a short season, and scarcity is the normal state. The short spring is followed by a long and burning summer; the herbage soon dries; the herbivora die or disappear; and the carnivora are in trouble. The Apaches support famine stoically. When the country cannot support the inhabitants they migrate, and thus the climate and the nature of the soil transform the Apaches into nomads, hunters, brigands, and thieves on the American continent, like the Bedouins and Kurds of the Asiatic continent on very nearly the same latitude. Mounted upon swift horses the famished savages go on an excursion to the number of 3 or 4, rarely more than 12, as they must live en route. They traverse enormous distances in quest of some slight prey-happy when they fall upon a meagre herbage, a lizard, or stray bird. Waiting for these they feed on their pemmican-a preparation of meat dried in the sun. They often fast until good fortune directs them upon an isolated farm-house or a troop of travellers weaker than themselves. They never attack openly when superiority is evidently against them. If in doubt they conceal themselves, and remain in ambuscade for entire days concealed in the bush, amongst rocks, or under logs of wood; and, when they judge the moment opportune, they throw themselves upon their prey, killing the men, seizing the women to make them slaves, and drawing ransom for the children, or making them Apaches; but, above all, seizing horses and mules, and driving them The district in which they are found is a rocky region from 700 to 2,000 metres above the level of the sea, divided by beds of lava E and cañons 1,000ft. deep, which the waters have cut into the rocks. On the plateaux, well escarped detached peaks exist, excessively cold during winter, for the most covered with forests-the refuge of men and beasts. During ten months of the year the torrid heat of the sun descends from a sky without a cloud upon the sands of the plains and the rocks during the day, and when night sets in the cold suddenly comes down. The violent changes of temperature generate whirlwinds of alkaline irritant dust. Twice a year, for fifteen days in April and six weeks in October and November, rain falls in cataracts and soon after the fissures in the rocks and depressions in the land become green, and decked with flowers. Wild sheep, stags, and antelopes then come out of their lairs, and after them creep the beasts of prey and the Apaches, alike formidable to men and animals. making the plate armature from a portion of the magnet; that is, in so producing a portion of the magnet that it will act as the vibrating plate; for instance, in Fig. 3 each magnet at N is produced inwards to B, leaving a central aperture at B; the ends of each of these projections may be attached to a metal ring or to a small plate covering the aperture. The coil itself is attached to this vibrating plate, so as to let the coil and plate vibrate together an improvement which may be applied to any form of telephone here described. It is a beautiful wild beast that Apache, says a French writer, but there are Apaches and Apaches. One kind is omnivorous, the other carnivorous, and their characters and appearances are materially affected by these habits. The former as the Navajos, Mojaves, and Comanches, who vary their diet with the produce of their nascent agriculture, are mostly six feet high, and the women of corresponding fine growth. The chest and arms are very muscular, the extremities delicate, the features often agreeable, with large brilliant black eyes, having a singular light and a power of vision truly extraordinary. Their complexion passes through all shades of clear and deep brown into brick red. The beard is tolerably thick. They are often cited as the most beautiful specimens of the human race. say. An American writer reports that, travelling across these terrible regions, the fatigue attacked his brain, and that he was mad for several days. The plunderers are at home in the desert and the mountains, and double and So much cannot be said for the true Apaches, hideously ugly, with an impassible mask, and before them. Before any one can pursue them who by common accord are described as shrivelled and withered features, figure mean, they fly like the wind into the labyrinths of cheek-bones prominent, large mouth, thin lips, the gorges and canons, and into those deserts eyes slightly oblique, and much brighter than of burning sands and lakes of fire traversed by ETHNOGRAPHY-THE APACHES. the greater part of the northern Indians. The death-"jurnades de muerte," as the Mexicans hair of the head is of a dark dead colour, THE sharp contests that are carried on never combed, falling upon the shoulders like a between civilisation and semi-civilisation mass of thick bristles. In other respects they and pure barbarism are a marked feature of the are almost without hair. By the side of their present day. Under the genial influence of the large neighbours they appear dwarfed, their long peace after the great Napoleonic wars mean height being only about 5ft. 5in. the material progress of the world was materially developed, and not the least has been effected by our own country. The result has been continual conflicts with different races with which we have been brought in contact, and the suppression, subjugation, or destruction, the last being the inevitable result with the intractable tribes. The thickness of their skin renders them, it is said, almost insensible to the action of cold and heat. They expose themselves to the most burning sun without any protection; but when they have time to study their comfort they cover their head with a goatskin cap, which yields an agreeable coolness, and relieves them of a part of their vermin; for the same reason treble rations. Covered with wounds, worn out with blows and wounds, and prostrated, the captured beasts fall dying before the wolves and wolflets with human faces, who salute them with joyous howls. Greedy, anxious, gnashing their teeth, they wait not until the animals are dead, but tear them to pieces, and eat them up without the slightest regard to their sufferings. |