line substance, without taste (the salts are bitter),
and having an alkaline reaction. The crystals are
lustrous, right rhombic prisms forming colourless
acicular tufts. It fuses about 170° C., losing water.
When heated much above this temperature it is
decomposed. It is easily soluble in alcohol and ether,
but is almost insoluble in water. It dissolves freely
in chloroform. An orange-red colour is produced
when strong chlorine water is added to the dilute
HCl solution and ammonia in excess. A dark-red
colour is produced when dissolved in H.SO, and
stirred with a glass rod dipped in HNO3, which dis-
appears when more HNO3 is added. A dark-red
colour is produced when ferric chloride is added to a
strong H2SO4 solution. A mixture of strong HNO3
and HSO, produces a bright red colour. A yellow
precipitate is formed when a little bromine solution
is added to a dilute HCl solution, which is dissolved
on heating. When submitted to oxidation it is
decomposed into opianic acid and cotarnine.
Nicotine. See the ENGLISH MECHANIC for
May 3rd, p. 192, for the properties of these com-
pounds. In addition it may be stated that prismatic
crystals are formed when the solution in water is
acidulated with HCl and mixed with platinum
bichloride. On evaporation it leaves no residue.

Nitrobenzol (C,H,NO) is a yellow oil, having a sweet taste, and an appearance and odour like oil of bitter almonds. It is neither acid nor alkaline. It has a specific gravity of 1-2. It boils about 215° C., and fuses at 3° C. On evaporation it leaves no residue. When at a temperature of about 3° C. it forms acicular crystals. It dissolves easily in alcohol and ether, but is insoluble in water. Aniline is formed when its solution in alcohol is saturated with NH3 and SH2, or by adding a bit of granulated zinc to the alcoholic solution treated with a little HCI, then excess of KHO is added after the hydrogen has been given off, and it is shaken with ether, which dissolves the aniline. Sodium amalgam and water converts nitrobenzol into azobenzol (NC6H5)2, and the hydride (NHCH5)2.

Oleic acid (C17H3COHO) is a colourless or yellow oil without odour or taste. At 4° C. it forms a white, firm, crystalline, acicular mass. It floats on water. On evaporation an inflammable oily residue is left. When exposed to a temperature of 0° C. it forms acicular crystals. It does not give the odour of acroleine when heated. When strongly heated it splits up into sebacic acid, CsH16(COHO)2, caprylic acid, CHCOHO, and caproic acid, CHCOHO. When heated with potassic hydrate, potassic palmitate and acetate are formed. It is soluble in ether, KHO, and alcohol, but insoluble in water. The alkaline oleates are soluble, other oleates are insoluble. Air has no effect on the solid, but it quickly changes the fluid to a brown colour. Nitric peroxide converts it into elaidic, C17H33COHO, a solid fatty acid. And when oxidised by nitric acid it is converted into many of the acetic and succinic series of acids. This acid forms with potash a soft soap, and with soda a hard soap. Oleine (C57H10406) is a yellow or colourless inodorous oil. It floats on water. When heated it gives the odour of acroleine. An oily residue is left on evaporation. It forms acicular crystals at -3° C. It is not so readily dissolved by alcohol or KHO as oleic acid. It is insoluble in water, but easily dissolves in ether. Nitric peroxide converts it into elaidine, a solid white fat. When exposed to the air it becomes darker, rancid, acid, and assumes a resinous appearance.

Palmitic acid (C15H31COHO) consists of white acicular tuft-like crystals, tasteless and odourless. It floats on water. When heated in closed vessels with potash lime it remains unaltered, and even when air is admitted little action is produced. It fuses in water when heated to 62° C. It can be distilled without decomposition. When heated it boils and evaporates, leaving no residue. When heated it burns like other fats. When heated with alcohols it forms compound ethers. It dissolves freely in ether and boiling alcohol. It does not dissolve in cold or boiling water, and is sparingly soluble in alcohol. The neutral alkaline palmitates are soluble in hot water, and gelatinise on cooling. When the aqueous solutions of the palmitate are largely diluted with water they are decomposed. It forms three compounds with glycerine. At ordinary temperatures Cl has no action on it, but at 100° C. substitution products are formed. Palmitine (CHO) is a white scaly crystalline fat. It forms a wax-like mass on cooling after fusion. It fuses in water when heated to 63 C., and a modification of it fases at 46 C. When heated it emits the odour of acroleine. It does not dissolve in water. It dissolves in ether and boiling alcohol readily.

Picric acid (CH2HO(NO)) crystallises in long yellow rectangular plates. The aqueous solution has a bitter taste, and stains the skin yellow. When heated it fuses to a yellow oil, or is sublimed, or is decomposed. When heated with a bleaching powder solution an odour like that of oil of mustard is evolved. It is sparingly soluble in water, and Soap consists principally of the salts of the bases, readily soluble in alcohol and ether. It is soluble potassium or sodium, with oleic, palmitic, or stearic in strong HNO3 and H2SO4. When KHO is added acids. These salts or soaps are formed by boiling to the alcoholic solution a yellow crystalline preci- oleine, palmitine, or stearine with the alkaline solapitate is produced. The addition of water to the tions. Ordinary soap easily dissolves in hot water

вопр

or alcohol, which deposit the soap on cooling. Soda is less soluble than potash soap. Soap is insoluble in water containing more than 25 per cent. of salt (NaCl). When KHO or NaCl is added to a soap solution the soap is separated. Spermaceti (CH64O2) is a crystalline pearly translucent fat, having a brighter lustre than parafin. It has a specific gravity of 94. It can scarcely be said to have either odour or taste. When heated in water it fuses about 50°C, and when heated on porcelain does not, like stearine or palmitine, give the odour of acroleine. When boiled with KHO it does not saponify. When distilled it is decomposed into cetyleine and palmitic acid. It does not easily dissolve in cold and is insoluble in boling water. It is insoluble in cold, but soluble in hot absolute alcohol. It is easily soluble in hot ether, from which it crystallises on coeling. Potassic bydrate bas little action on spermaceti, but when fused with half its weight of KHO at about 105°C palmitic acid is formed. Hugh Clements.

MECHANICS' AMATEUR SOCIETY.

[14960.]-HAVING been away from home for the last week or two, my attention has only just been drawn to a letter in the number of the ENGLISH MECHANIC for Sept. 20, signed Samuel Smither, in which he states that he is now forming a society under the name of the "Amateur Mechanics' Society."

I wish all success and prosperity to this new society, for I think it desirable to cultivate a taste for mechanics among all classes, but I must remind Mr. Smither that a society already exists under a title so similar to that he proposes that confusion between the two may easily exist.

The Amateur Mechanical Society has been esta blished for more than eight years, and is in a prosperous condition, and as a member of that society I feel that it would be hardly fair to it if another were started with a name so nearly the same that the two may easily be mistaken for one another. I feel sure that Mr. Smither will see the propriety of selecting some other name for the one

[14061.-IN reply to Hugh Clements and others I may say a few gentlemen have formed themselves into a committee for the purpose of carrying out the idea-i.e., instruction rooms for amateurs. I may also add one of the old members of the Amateur Turners' Society has turned up. We intend shortly to hold a public meeting, the date of which will be advertised in this and other journals. Our plan of action will then be laid before the meeting for their approval. I certainly shall be glad to have the assistance of Hugh Clements and other talented contributors of this journal, and I have to thank the Editor for inserting my letters on the subject. I may, add, in conclusion, the committee have appointed me secretary pro tem., and furthermore that I and the committee do not ask nor intend to receive any kind of remuneration for our services until the society can afford to pay (expenses out of pocket excepted). My address will be advertised shortly in this journal.

Samuel Smither.

called the minor 13th, too flat for the major 13th;
(b) the theory gives no account whatever of the
minor triad, whether taken on the tonic, supertonic,
subdominant, dominant, or submediant.

Let us consider (a). The offending notes are, in the
key of C, Bh the 7th, D2 the minor 9th, F the 11th,
Ab and A the 13th. Turning to my letter (14093),
in the third column of the table we find the hyp-
harmonics of C, which correspond to notes of the
scale, to be these: C, B (a form of Ez), Az, F, D;
that is, every one of the above disputed notes, with
the exception of A (the so-called major 13th of which
more hereafter), are hypharmonics of C. Taking,
then, both harmonics and hypharmonics of C, we
can sound, with just intonation, the great chord,
CEGB2D(or D2)FA2B; and this chord (always
excepting the A) is, on the harmonic theory,
the container of all possible discords springing from
the generator, C. (Of the compound chord, the
augmented, or extreme 6th, I will speak under the
head of the augmented 4th.)

=

=

=

16

digested. The reason of this is that common bread,
like everything else that has been partially fer-
mented, ferments easily again, to the great discom-
fort of many stomachs; and not only so, but by
acting as a ferment it communicates a similar action
to the food in contact with it when the digestive
power is too weak to control or counteract the
operation of the chemical affinities, as a little leaven
leavens the whole lump.
In cases of severe
dyspepsia fermented bread can seldom be eaten
without producing derangement.

Were the writer of this article to use fermented in place of unfermented bread, he would suffer severely from acidity, flatulence, and constipation, as well as loss of strength, and all of which are avoided by his making use of unfermented brown bread.

Unfermented bread, being free from the defects above mentioned, is beneficial to those who suffer from headache, acidity, flatulence, eructations, a sense of sinking at the pit of the stomach, distension, or pain after meals, and many affections of the skin.

These remarks apply to both varieties of the bread, but especially to the brown, which is also further invaluable to all who are liable to constipation.

Bread made in this manner contains nothing but flour or meal, culinary salt (the result of the combination of the acid and soda), and water. It has an agreeable natural taste, and keeps moist and good much longer than common bread. But the advantages of the process are not limited to matters relating to health. It is valuable, because bread can be prepared by it in such a short space of time, the whole process of preparation for the oven not exceeding a quarter of an hour, and any person capable of ordinary attention may conduct it, for on a small scale it is as simple and easy as the making of a common pudding, except perhaps that accuracy in quantities is more important.

It is worth while to examine the values of some of these dissonant hypharmonics-e.g., the B form of B flat. The ratio of 8 is by the table 21: 12 while that of the harmonic 7th is 21: 12 the difference between them is, therefore, , which is equivalent to *27 of a mean semitone, a comma being 21 of a mean semitone. Now of, therefore B is the 4th of the 4th of C, or the 4th of F. The natural resolution of the chord of the minor 7th on C (CEGBE) is upon the common chord of F (FAC), the 7th descending to A; but the 7th may be held over as a suspended 4th while the notes, F and C, are sounded. If, then, the 7th is B, it is a true 4th of F; but if a harmonic 7th it is more than a comma flat, which experience teaches to be simply unbear able. The case is very similar, though still more gross, as regards the suspended 11th, which is sharper than the perfect 4th by 53 of a mean semitone, or more than half a diatonic semitone. So that if the harmonic theory be correct, we have no true suspensions at all; for the note said to be held over is in reality shifted to another approxi-making good bread. It is valuable also because the mate sound. This seems to me, both as a practical materials are not perishable, and may be rendered and theoretical musician, eminently unsatisfactory; available in places and at times when yeast and other and proportionally, therefore, does the diharferment is not procurable, while by their use a saving monic" theory seem to gain in consistency. In consequence of the length of this letter, I must is effected in the flour of about 10 per cent. In the defer the question of the major 13th. common process the saccharine part of the flour, with a portion of both the gum and the gluten, is A. Coates. lost by being converted into carbonic acid and spirit, Darenth Vicarage, Dartford, Oct. 2, 1878. which are driven into the air by the heat of the oven, and this waste is incurred, as was before remarked, solely for the purpose of getting carbonic acid to raise the dough. By the new method the waste is avoided and the gas obtained in a manner equally beautiful and efficacious, another striking instance of the successful application of chemical philosophy to

UNFERMENTED BREAD.
[14963.]-THE following was written by me, in
1850, for the pages of a magazine, long since de-
funct and obsolete. Possibly it may interest some
of your recent correspondents.

The first account of unfermented bread may be
traced back as far as the year 1816. Dr. Thomson,
professor of chemistry in the University of Glasgow,
wrote an essay on baking for the Encyclopædia
Britannica, which was published in the second
volume of that work in the year above mentioned.

After stating the then ascertained fact that the only purpose served by fermentation in breadmaking is the generation of the carbonic acid required to raise the dough, he goes on to observe that this may be obtained from soda by mixing a portion of that article with the flour, and then adding a corresponding quantity of muriatic acid; and further, that the dough so formed will rise immediately it is put into the oven fully as much, if not more, than bread made with yeast, and when baked will constitute a very light and excellent bread.

This method was tested at the time by several persons, and found to answer perfectly, but it seems to have been regarded only as a philosophical curiosity. Successive attempts were indeed made to turn it to account, but none of them excited much attention till of late years, when it was discovered that the bread made in this way was both more wholesome and economical than that made by fermentation.

The writer of this notice has never failed in

the common arts of life.

It may not be out of place to observe that mistaken notions respecting the quality of different sorts of bread have given rise to much waste in another way. The general belief is that bread made of the finest flour is the best, and that whiteness is the proof of its quality, but these opinions are popular errors. The whiteness may be, and generally is, communicated by alum, to the injury of the consumer, and it is known to men of science that the entire meal will sustain life while common bread, made with refined flour, will not. Keep a man on unfermented brown bread and water, and he will live and enjoy good health; give him fermented THE HARMONIC THEORY OF MUSIC. white bread and water only, and he will gradually [14962.]-ON account of the length of my letter sicken and die. The meal of which the first is (No. 14903) I was obliged to reserve a part of my made contains all the ingredients essential to the remarks, some of which I will ask you to insert now. composition or nourishment of the various strucThe absence of F from both the harmonics and tures composing our bodies. Some of those ingrehypharmonics of C deserves notice. F, called the dients are removed or much reduced in quantity aagmented 4th," forms, together with C, the by the miller in his efforts to please the public; and intervals known as the "tritone." The tritone is others, as now shown, are destroyed by fermentaalways treated of as something uncanny; a progrestion, so that the bread of fine flour, and particularly sion of melody between its extreme notes is generally when made by the fermenting method, instead of avoided; and when these same notes form part of a being better than meal bread similarly made, is the chord, e.g., the minor 7th and major 3rd, they are least nourishing, and, to make the case worse, it is always subjected to a special resolution. May not also the most difficult of digestion. The loss is, all this be referable to the fact that the augmented Dr. Robertson, in his excellent work on "Diet therefore, in all respects a waste, and it seems de4th has really no place in the scale, and, whenever and Regimen," when treating of the dietetic uses of sirable that the admirers of white bread, howsoever introduced, brings a foreign impression into the key? bread, explains why the unfermented is so much made, should be acquainted with these truths, and The old masters-however indifferent for expediency's more wholesome and nutritious than fermented. He brought to inquire whether they do not purchase the sake as to what names they gave the chromatic notes says, the degree to which the fermentation of the gratification of their fancy and taste at too high a of the scale-yet invariably wrote the augmented 4th dough is carried, before it is put into the oven, like- rate. The unwise preference given so universally to as such, never as a diminished 5th. They felt it to wise affects its digestibility. If the fermentation white bread led to the pernicious practice of mixing be an exceptional note. It is curious, too, that the of the dough be carried far there is no doubt that alum with the flour. The writer has good authority Chinese, Hindus, Scotch and other N. European not only is the amount of alimentary matter by so for stating that the use of alum, or stuff," as it nations omit two of the notes of the diatonic scale much diminished, but the digestibility of the bread is called in the trade, is very general, if not uniin their music, and these two are the extremes of the is lessened in the same proportion. Such bread versal, the most conscientious bakers being contritone as if, e.g., when in singing the scale of C will have undergone so much more of the acetons strained to employ it, since all bread not whitened they arrived at B, they felt that note to be quite fermentation, and be by so much more likely to de- by its means is rejected by their customers as inferior incompatible with the previous F, and so omitted range the stomach, and to be with difficulty assimi- in quality; such is the effect of prejudice and illboth. I will, with your permission, speak of the lated, while it will have had so much more of its directed public opinion. The proportion of alum augmented 4th in connection with the supertonic alimentary particles converted into the products of introduced varies from 22 grains in the quartern loaf chord on a future occasion, as I wish to draw imme- fermentation, which are either altogether lost and to three times that amount, and often more, accorddiate attention to the theory of unprepared discords, driven off by the heat of oven, or if retained, rendering to the quality of the flour-quite enough to conWith regard to these the harmonic theory is very the bread in the same degree less digestible. However stipate the bowels and derange the digestive organs simple and plausible, but also on many points very thoroughly the products of fermentation may be of all who make use of such a compound. It is one unsatisfactory. The case against it is chiefly: (a) expelled by the baking, and by letting the bread be of the advantages of the effervescing process that it the harmonic 7th is offensively flat, the minor 9th a day or two old before it is eaten, there are some would put an end to all such practices, as its chemical barely tolerable, the 11th excruciatingly sharp, and people with whom it seldom agrees, and some states materials and alum are incompatible. Among the the 13th simply nowhere-too sharp for what is of the system in which it is anything but easily matters removed by the miller is the larger portion

required. The same quantities of soda mentioned
in the tables will do for bread made with buttermilk
instead of the acid.
Blandford, Sept. 27.
H. Childs.

[14964.]-IN my letters upon the subject of continuous brakes I have frequently mentioned that the Westinghouse automatic brake can be regulated to the greatest nieety from full power to the slightest touch. It has been before explained in Volume XXVI., page 578, that all that is necessary to apply the brake is that the pressure of air shall be reduced in the main brake pipe. The force with which the brake is applied is in exact proportion to the quantity of air which is allowed to escape. The driver regulates the brake, and works it entirely by means of

some flour will take more than others, so that it there is a passage of in. open between the main men are brought up for trial, whed the unfortunate In the position shown nothing further will be done until c,t be obtained the use of res stated in the tables, and add more afterwards it all the auxiliary reservoirs throughout the train with tinuous brakes will be broug) fes innd hard, and the

statements of Colonel Rich will be called in question and disproved.

I must remind "Finem Respice" that there is not the difference between "trials and actual work" which he imagines, as I have myself proved that the Westinghouse automatic brake works quite as well, and makes quite as good stops in every-day working as it does at the various brake trials; and in my suggestion I mentioned that the train could be formed of the carriages which the London, Chatham, and Dover Company have in use.

The argument that the driver might not have noticed the obstruction entirely falls to the ground. It is a proved fact that the driver of the excursion train saw the obstruction at a greater distance than 200 yards, and it is equally certain that if he had had a good continuous brake under his control he would have stopped his train easily clear of the waggons, and thus have prevented the collision. Good continuous brakes which fulfil the conditions laid down by the Board of Trade are such a safeguard that no possible case can occur in actual railway working, where they would not be of very great use either in preventing accidents or in miti. gating their severity. October 3rd.

C. E. 8.

SINGLE V. COUPLED ENGINES. [14966.]-THE various letters which have appeared

REPLIES TO QUERIES.

In their answers, Correspondents are respectfully requested to mention, in each instance, the title and number the of query asked.

during the night, break off the end farthest from
the net, attach it to the end of the wire, and with
a slight strain on the web wind it on the reel by
torning the reel round between the hands and leav
ing fully in. between each coil, so as to leave room
The best mode of
for removing the web for use.
doing this is to use a pair of spring compasses with
small bits of cork stuck on the points, and coated
The compasses should be [33057.J-Henry Andrews, Almanac Maker.-
with varnish or gum.
opened a little wider than the diaphragm, and after It may be that some of your readers are not aware
taking the web off unscrew the compasses ever so that Andrews' manuscripts, which would doubt-
little so as to strain the web, which is very elastic. less throw considerable light on his history, and of
Warm the diaphragm slightly, lay the web into the that well-known almanac of "Francis Moore," have
incised grooves, and touch them with varnish, and it not yet been published. From reliable information
only son of the astronomer, sold to Mr. Robert Cole
it is done. The reason of allowing but one night for I find that some forty years ago Mr. W. H. Andrews,
the webs to be spun is that every time the spider (Mr. Cole had then offices in Tokenhouse-yard, E.C.)
the whole of his father's MSS., consisting of astro-
goes along the stays and returns, he or she lays on
two more lines, so that at last they get too thick for nomical and astrological calculations, notes of
use, and winding on the reels as above prevents the various phenomena, materials for a history of Roys-
web being twisted, which is ruinous to them in use. ton, memoir of his own life, his correspondence, &c.,
I may here remark that each single line is composed with a mass of very curious letters from persons
of six or eight strands, same in number as the desirous of having their "nativities cast;" and Mr.
spinerets of the spider, and it is never covered with Cole, in writing to "Notes and Queries," 1851,
the adhesive fluid with which the spider se beauti- stated that "the only materials left by Andrews for
fully bedews the net after all is finished. The reels a memoir of his life I believe I possess, and some
should be made to fit in a neat box, and enough may day I may find leisure to put them into order for
be gathered in a morning to serve an ordinary work- publication." Andrews had an extraordinary genius
for astronomy, and although in circumstances of
shop for seven years.
R. J. Lecky.
life little encouraging to talent, displayed consider-
able knowledge. He was for nearly fifty years the
able computer of the "Nautical Ephemeris." and

Scientific Club, Oct. 5.

PREVENTING BREAK-DOWNS OF EN.
GINES THROUGH OVER-SPEED.

on

[14968.7-I HAVE noticed on p. 603, Vol. XXVII.
Norfolk"
(letter 14746) a communication from
an "improved" fly-wheel. I think if he will test
his wheel on, say, a 12 h.-p. engine, a few minutes'
observation of its working will convince him that
there is a great difference between theory and
He does not say what
practice in this case.
arrangement he would have for a fly-spur wheel
where the rim must of necessity be stronger than an
ordinary wheel.

86

Almanac," published by the Stationers' Company. It may fairly be said that there are few such men whose talents are so little known to the world as that self-taught mathematician, Henry Andrews.WILLIAM H. WEST.

in your valuable paper for the last few years have FLY-WHEELS-A SIMPLE METHOD OF compiler of that far-famed production Moore's sontained much interesting information, but still the controversy as to the respective merits of single and coupled engines seems still as far as ever from solution. Much has been said with regard to the difference of gradients on the Midland and G N. lines. One correspondent in, as I think, a somewhat misleading manner, informs us that the Great Northera, from King's-cross to Potter's-bar, bas rising gradients varying from 1 in 105 to 1 in 200. Now, I think that it would be a great assistance to many in forming a judgment on this difficult question, if some of your correspondents would confer what, I think, many readers would consider a great favour-I mean would give us side by side a section of the lines from St. Pancras to Leicester, and from King's-cross to Peterboro', showing the gradients. This would outweigh in many minds a great amount of talk, besides being very interesting to such of your readers who, as I now and then do, have occasion to travel on the Midland main line. I may mention that I have several pieces of timing in my possession, which I consider surpass any heretofore given. I have details, but not wishing to trespass on your valuable space, will refrain from giving any more than an outline of one or two. Here are a few specimens

Both these journeys, with trains equal to 16 carriages, according to the computation of the locomotive engineers. In the first case the engine was a Dab's bogie, and in the second one of the Dub's engines without the bogie. I regret I have lost count of the number.

Can "C. E. S." give any information as to how an accident to the Scotch express at Leeds happened a week ago? Henry John Southall.

SPIDERS' LINES.

B

I send sketch of a very simple means of preventing break-downs of engines through over-speed. The throttle valve should be an equilibrium valve. The usual connections from governor to valve may be [14967.]-SOME fifty or sixty years ago a gentle-used, excepting the connecting rod to valve lever, which is made as shown at A. The rod end is man, a disciple of Spurzheim, and afterwards a sur-coupled on the stud in lever. On any convenient geon in Edinburgh, made the acquaintance of the late Edward Troughton, mainly for the purpose of part of valve cover fix the rod C as shown at B, getting a cast of his face, one of which I now for making the inclined planes sufficiently large to force the rod end off the lever stud when the governor tunately possess, who, on taking him up to his balls are opened at their widest. The under plane observatory in Fleet-street, suddenly called out, Oh, Mr. A., take care, don't disturb my spinners!" should be at such a distance from the upper as to Mr. A. found that these were spiders which Mr. allow, say, five revolutions of engine faster or slower Troughton had introduced for the purpose of col than the ordinary speed. It will now be seen that as the speed rises the governor will close the throttle lecting their webs for the diaphragms of his instru-valve until the stud in rod end begins to slide down ments. Among the many very interesting commu- the inclined plane, and the rod is gradually forced nications you have had respecting spiders and their off the stud in valve lever, when the throttle valve webs, I do not find that any one has given what, closes by its own weight. Should the governor cease

[33476.]-Trotting Machine (U.Q).-I have made them in Canada. Front wheels, 3ft. 4in. high, and hind wheels, 3ft. Sin.; light wheels, fin. by in. tires on them; in. axle, arched with wood casings on each end; centre clip on front axle, with pinion on top, fastening to same by clips; shafts with clips top of same, which goes up through front part of frame, and is fastened with nut, frame clipped on to hind axle. Frame, lin. wood by in. and in, and fin, screwed on under side to strengthen side pieces, frame long enough, so that the wheels can pass one another in turning. Two half grasshopper springs on top of frame, fastened on end of frame with link scrolls, spring lengthways with frame; light seat bolted on top of spring can be made to weigh from 601b. upwards with hickory.-ALBERT HALL, Lyme Regis.

[33579.] Flying Dutchman (U.Q.). - The G. W. R. Company are fitting their 8ft. broad-gauge engines with Sanders' automatic brake, and also the broad-gauge bogie carriages. The engines already fitted are Tornado, Balaclava, Lightning, Amazon, Crimea, and three other renewals not yet out of the shop. They have a steam brake in addition to the vacuum. The G. W. are not discarding single engines, as the last main line N. G. passenger engines built at Swindon were single wheels, 7ft. cylinders, 18in. by 24in. Six broad-gauge 8ft. engines have been renewed this year, three running, and the others nearly completed.-PSYCHE.

[33639.]-8pectacles.-I am much obliged to Cysticercus" for his answer to my inquiry, and for his kind offer. In reply I may say that since my inquiry was first inserted I have been induced by my friends to put myself in the hands of another eminent oculist, physician to the Liverpool Eye and Ear Infirmary, whose treatment I am now undergoing. His course of treatment will, however, be over in about two or three weeks' time, and should I afterwards find that it has been as unsuccessful as that of other oculists I have consulted, I shall only be too grateful to accept of "Cysticercus's " offer, and will, in that case, advertise my address. In reply to his question the two oculists I consulted previously are the first in their profession in this town (Liverpool), and both physicians and specialists, in addition to which I have been under other physicians not specialists in regard to eye diseases, but without avail so far.-OPTIC.

[33669.]-Worm in Red Deal.-Dissolve loz. of sal-ammoniac in half a pint of hot water, add joz. of corrosive sublimate, and when dissolved add half a gallon of water. Go over the floor once or twice with this solution by means of a brush, and you will have no trouble afterwards. N.B.-This is a very powerful poison, so for safety throw it away when done with, and thoroughly cleanse the bucket or contain

ing vessel.-GOTMANSKY.

in my opinion, is the best mode of collecting this to revolve, by any means, the valve would be opened Wait does not want nostrums perhaps she will not

until the stud began to slide on the upper plane,
when the rod would be again forced off, with same
result as above. I have seen this larrangement
working at several cotton mills, and know that in
more than one case it has prevented a serious break

down.

Lancashire Fitter.

most useful article. The proper webs are the long
stay lines of the net of any of the geometrical
spiders. At this time of year especially, those of the
Epeira diadema are the most convenient, and the
best mode of procedure is to select a few hedgerows
where these most abound. In the afternoon, during
fine settled weather, clear away all the nets and
webs you can find, being careful to avoid disturbing
the spiders' nest, and next morning go prepared
with a few reels made of two pieces of wood, say [14969.-IT may interest those of your readers
3in. by in. by in., connected with two wires who have never seen this wonderful variable star to
about Sin. long and 3in. apart, and coated with learn that it is now near its maximum, and a con-
some slow drying varnish, such as copsl. Look out spicuous object in our midnight sky.
for the fine long stays which have been spun Dublin, Oct. 4.

MIRA CETI.

J. E. Gore.

I

[33684.1-Pain in Head (U.Q.). As Esther thank another suffering woman for her experience. can only say that I was cured of similar distressing pain by some powders of zinc, valerian, and iron. They can be got of any good homoeopathic chemist. have found them unfailing in every instance where the pain is neuralgic, as it certainly is in E. Wait's case, though she may not believe it. Stockport.

I

E. L

[33762.]-College of Surgeons (U.Q.).—A-1y to secretary of the Royal College of Surg London, for prospectus, which will give you evy information.-GODEMAN.

[33770.]-Gatling Gun (U.Q.).—It was vented by Mr. B. B. Hotchiss, of New York, U.S. t is on a

carriage similar to that of the Moncrieff gun. It has 5 steel rifled barrels, 1'44in. calibre. The ball chamber revolves on an axis by a crank being turned round, which revolves the barrel. The ball-case is fixed on the left-hand side of chamber, and is selffeeding. Each case contains ten cartridges. Eighty ronnds per minute can be fired with three men's assistance, one man to train the gun and revolve the crank, one man to place the cartridge-case in feed trough, and one to charge feed-case and hand them to charger. It can be fired with accuracy at 3 miles. -ALBERT HALL.

[33901.]-Smith's Work.-It is doubtful whether any books on practical smith's work have ever been published.-J. T. M.

[33902.]-Saddle of Von Zubovitz.-According to a drawing the saddle is merely an air-bag, made in such a manner that it can be bent around the horse's back and sides. There's nothing wonderful about it, and any of the indiarubber shops would supply an air bed which could be inflated as desired, and secured to the horse by inclosing it in a cover of strong canvas with suitable straps.-S. M.

[33906.]-Model Steamer.-"W. H. B.'s" best plan would be to get the dimensions of the vessel he desires to copy as a model, and reduce the scale to suit. The best wood is yellow pine. He had better buy the engines if they are to work under steam; but does he really imagine that he can have them, boilers and all, with fittings like those in the ship? What would be the size of the salinometer in a model 4ft. 6in. long ?-RODUS.

mean

[33921.]-Making Ice.-Does "Cleer" water ice, or confectioner's ice ?-UTILE. [33925.]-Building Societies.-I must think that "Justitia has not ventured to put in practice what he seems to recommend to others; but in case they should err in making the attempt I wish to direct their attention to his own statement on page 100-thus, the cash borrowed from society amounts to £360. This has to be paid back, as well as the supposed cost of house set out in the last item, as £372 48. 4d, making £732 altogether. If this is not plain enough we will have it in black and white.

Payment, 14 years to society
Ground rent

Repairs (small estimate)...

Borrowed extra

Interest on same at 5 per cent....

-FIDDLER.

£. s. d.

516 12 0

63 0 0

49 0 0

saves his £450 by investing it, and buys his house
at the end of the 14 years, is the best off. Consult
100 men, and 99 will say they would prefer to be
their own landlord during that 14 years to running
the risk of frequent removal to avoid an increased
rental, notwithstanding that the property they par-
chase will slightly depreciate in value during those
14 years. Your readers will, I think, be of my
opinion that "Fiddler " has put an extreme case, and
that the chances are much in favour of the borrower
from the building society paying considerably less
than £450 over and above a fair rental during the 14
years for which he borrows. The borrower has an
additional advantage in that he runs no risk of losing
the money he is saving towards buying his house,
whereas the investor always runs some risk of losing
his savings. The last sentence in "Fiddler's"
remarks is so vague and involved that I take it to be
to the Orwell Building Society, Ipswich.
a riddle, which I give up.-GEO. WRIGHT, Secretary

[33930.] Railway Situation.-W. Stephenson
must go as "cleaner" at wages varying from 10s, to
15s. Midland Co. best.-T. M.

[33939.]-Mining Question.-If I understand you right in your first question the quantity of air going up a 9ft. pit would be 34,500 cubic feet per minute, and the velocity would be rather more than 9ft. per second. 2nd. An air-way 9 x 5 would be required for 40,000 cubic feet per minute.-COLLIER.

[33914.]-Spasm of the Neck.-" One Afflicted"
should apply to a medical man. How is it possible
that any one without seeing him can pronounce a
useful opinion as to the "possibility of obtaining
relief ?"-RETRO.

[33946.]-Cleaning Walls.-Water with soda in
t; and whitewash afterwards.-H. K. L.
[33949.]-Fine Compo Tubing.-This can be
made by forcing the metal through a suitable die,
but Mr. Cox had better get the makers to supply
him, and cut it into short lengths to suit his pur-
pose.-S. M. P.

[33961.]-Torpedoes.-There were some excellent
papers in Engineering not long since, and it is pos-
sible they may now be in book form.-J. T.M.
[33962.]-Polishing Paste.-Has "Barman's
brother tried rottenstone and soft soap-of course
with elbow grease ?-R. T.

pass

"

[33966.]-Incrustation on Tiles and Cement.90 0 0 Most likely the white incrustation is lime working 63 0 0 out of the cement through damp.-T. K. L. £781 12 0 [33969.]-Iron in Sand.-Test with a magnet if you mean iron grains in sand.-J. T. M. [33925.]-Building Societies.-"Fiddler's "reply [33988.]-Speed of Trains.-I must apologise to to" Jib" contains certain allegations against build- "Common Sense' for having omitted one imporing society directors which reflect very much upon tant condition in this question-viz., that the express the value of these societies, which have acted, and runs three miles whilst the goods train runs two, are acting, a very useful part in the promotion of the and must thank him for pointing out the omission. welfare of the middle and lower middle classes, and I, however, submit that in this case the word I hope you will allow me, as a building society secre- can only have one meaning; a train, being a line of tary, to say a few words in explanation. Whatever carriages, must be taken as a whole, and if the passmay be the experience of "Fiddler" I do not thinking of one portion, such as the head buffers of the he is justified in saying that any society he knows express passing the tail buffers of the goods train, charges 11 per cent. to borrowers, and yet only pays had been meant, it should have been so described, 5 or 6 to shareholders for the use of their money. He and as the train must have started level they must should add that as the borrowers are shareholders again be level before one commences to pass the other they receive this 5 or 6 per cent. profit as well as the that is to say, as the start commences when the head other shareholders, and that therefore, instead of buffers of the goods train show in front of head paying 11 per cent., they only actually pay 5 or 6 per buffers of express, so the head buffers of the express cent. for the use of the money they borrow, and this must show in front of the goods train, before it can is not too much when you remember the work there commence to pass it. I will feel obliged if "Common is attendant upon receiving the money by monthly Sense or any of your other correspondents will instalments. Again, all building-society directors kindly re-consider this proposition, with the above are elected by the members, and if they are not the addition, and favour me with their opinions. The sort of men Fiddler" would select they evidently question should have been as follows:-The dishave the confidence of their shareholders, and beyond tance from York to Newcastle being 80 miles, the that no one has a right to complain. Besides this length of two trains 88 yards cach, one of them the directors are bound by Act of Parliament to issue starts from York for Newcastle at 8 a.m., the other a balance-sheet every year, and to furnish a copy to at 8.30. The latter runs three miles whilst the every member, and to send a copy to the registrar of former runs two, and can pass it in 18 seconds. building societies. If "Fiddler" is correct in assert- Required, their distance from York when the express ing that directors purchase houses for themselves passes the goods train, and the time at which each out of the "expenses," how is it that shareholders train is due at Newcastle.-KERNEL. and the registrar never discover it? The accusation will not bear investigation, and I am sorry that it should have been made. I am far from saying that all building societies are equally good, for it stands to reason that societies are like businesses, and that some are managed better than others. The best are those of a permanent and mutual character, and I would advise borrowers to avoid those societies which do not consider borrowers equally with investors. in much the same way that building societies do, but There are some limited companies which lend money with the difference that all the profits go to the shareholders of the companies, and the borrowers to a properly conducted building society, and yet the necessarily pay more for their money than they would borrower is benefited, for he is able to purchase a house where he would always remain a tenant, for it is absolute folly to suppose that the majority of those who purchase by means of a building society would ever save money enough to buy a house right out. And now I will take" Fiddler's' own figures, and see what they are worth. He says that a man going to a building society would have to pay £90 down and an annual sum of £15 over and above a air rental, besides a ground-rent of £4 103. per num and the ordinary landlord's repairs, and he intains that in the 14 years the man has paid in all for his house, and this he supposes to be the alue of the house when the man commences his opertions; and yet he says that another man who

The

with or without cotton wool. If the cotton wool prevented the entrance of soot and smoke, it would at the same time prevent the exit of the foul air-at least, to a great extent. In fact, in a short time the deposit of soot on the cotton-wool would block up the exit altogether. It is impossible to advise as to the best and cheapest way of ventilating the room without having a structural knowledge of the hous If "L. D." will advertise his address, I will com municate with him privately.-SANITARY SCIENCE [34093.]-Horse-Power of Engines.-The rals for calculating the horse-power of compound engines is as follows:

A

α =

L

7

Distance traversed by piston to point of cut-off in small cylinder

P = Initial pressure in lbs. per square inch, includ
ing pressure of atmosphere

p = Back pressure (generally about 21lb. per sq, is
w Work performed during part of stroke
W = Work performed during whole stroke
N = No. of revolutions per minute
E = Ratio of expansion

w = a Pl (1 + hyp. log.

=

AL
al

a L + (A - a) l a L ApL

(1 + hyp. log. E)

-AP

H.-P. = '0000606 A LN [(1 + hyp. log. E) - v
I have often proved this rule to be a good one-
LANCASHIRE FITTER.

[31124.]-Wind Vane.-Make the "soldier turn easily on a vertical pivot. Bore a small hole through from shoulder to shoulder, and cement into it a short piece of quill-tubing, fine in bora but of thick glass. Now take a knitting-need just thick enough to turn smoothly and free in the tube. Put it through the tube, and bend the projecting ends at right angles to the part in the tube, and in opposite directions to one another, so that when one hangs down the other points un To these attach light strips of bevelled wood aboar lin. wide, with the bevelled surfaces turned opposta ways. These may be carved away and painted so s to resemble arms or swords, and must be made ta balance one another till they will stay in say position equally well.-GLENNAQUOICH,

[34126.]-Piano Tuning.-In olden times, whee the charge for tuning a piano was from a guines upwards it can be easily imagined that the proc was enveloped in as much mystery as possible, and that grave directions as to how long the instrument should be allowed to "settle," &c., should form par of the impressive ceremony, but in reality, if it he been simply tuned, there is no reason why it should not be played on at once. If any repairs have been done it is, of course, a different thing, and time should then be allowed for the glue to thoroughly set.-W. H. DAVIES.

[34147.1-Gelatine Plates-Ferrous Oxalate Developer.-Since this query appeared I have tried the ferrous oxalate developer upon a few of my plates, and find that when I use the ordinary strength-that is, neutral potassa oxalate, 80 grains hot water, 4 (fluid) ounces; and when dissolved ad ferrous oxalate 20 grains, shake well, cool, filter, and develop by putting the plate in this solution without washing-the image comes out gradually, [34018.]-Paralysis. My thanks to "Meddyg Llygaid for his lucid reply on page 47. evenly, and in other respects satisfactorily, provide symptoms I described followed closely on what I the exposure has been a long one-say, equal to wet imagine to have been a severe neuralgic attack-plate, and there is no disposition to fog-but that it sharp shooting pains from crown of head to below is not possible to get a satisfactory picture with the temple lasted two months. The last symptom this developer and a short exposure, nor is it possible since my first query is a curvature of the tongue with the developer twice the strength, in which case towards right side, accompanied by slight swelling I found it would bring out a much shorter expor to vary the strength when in use except you begi same side. The eyelid has slightly opened this week, consequently everything appears double, and to see but the eye still remains a decided squint outwardly things in their normal condition I have to shut the paralysed eye. I am in thorough good health, with sweet new hay. Does this exception, the urine has a powerful odour, as of Meddyg Llygaid "consider my case hopeful? The treatment I have received has been blisters behind the ear and on temple alter nately, and a medicine tasting like a solution of table-salt, with a slight flavour of chloric ether. I am a photographer, but have always been careful not to inhale cyanide fumes.-CYMRO.

[34055.]-Photographing the Moon.-To W. J. LANCASTER-1 am prepared to meet some difficulty in obtaining negatives. I am about to have an equatoreal, such as you mention on p. 76, fitted to my telescope, and shall feel grateful to you for all the information you will give me.-J. L.

sure, but without, to my thinking, the same density : or "bloom that can be got with the alkaline pyro For "still life," where a good exposure can be given, I should feel inclined to recommend it to beginner, on account of its simplicity, were it not that it is always advisable not to use too many processes, because it tends greatly to prevent that thorough mastery over one which, if once acquired will almost insure pictures where they would be but very indifferent, if not utter failures, in the hand of the man of many processes.' It strikes m that drying a gelatine plate face downwards must emulsion would certainly run towards the support of necessity cause an uneven film, because the it rests upon; and it is scarcely needed, as some of the best plates I have ever prepared have been do in the sitting-room on a spring evening, after it had gone dark, by the aid of a Kennett's dark room gas lantern fitted over one burner of the chandelier only this involved getting up before daylight to stow them away.-FINEM RESPICE.