show that many small children are kept from attending schools, in wide-spread districts, on account of the long distances to be travelled to reach them. No primary building should be more than two stories, and only large enough to accommodate about six hundred children.

"In small two-story buildings there is less danger from panic caused by fire or otherwise. There is less danger from contagion, and more comfort and safety to little children, when in smaller groups and separated from the larger ones. Small buildings can be much better and cheaper lighted, sewered, heated, and ventilated than large ones." [Mr. James F. Crooker, superintendent of education, Buffalo, N. Y.]

"I am convinced that the board of education should condense the schools of the city into a few large buildings. There cannot be a strict discipline of pupils, nor any exactness of grade, when the schools are isolated and scattered over the city in groups of two or three. The teachers in these isolated schools may be ever so faithful and efficient, but they work at a very great disadvantage. The pupils are harder to control, being responsible to no principal, and the teachers are forced to have several grades in one room, thereby losing time and force. The proper policy of our city and of every city is to congregate its schools in large buildings of ten or twelve rooms each. Here an efficient principal can enforce a rigid discipline of behavior, and the assistants feel responsible for nothing but the proper teaching. The children can be reduced to grade, thereby putting all of one class of studies under the care of one teacher. Better work, and more evident and satisfactory results in every respect are thereby obtained." [Superintendent Lawton B. Evans, Augusta, Ga.]

"In any case, the character of the school should be determined before the plans for the building are made. In other words, the building should be adapted to the organization of the school, not the organization to the building." [Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of Brooklyn, N. Y. ]

It

"As a matter of financial policy, it would certainly be better for the city to borrow, if necessary, the required sum of money, and erect three or four new school-houses, which would be healthy and comfortable, rather than annually expend a considerable amount for the rent of old buildings which are often unhealthy and unsuited for school use. can scarcely be necessary to repeat what has so often been said in this relation, that rented houses are seldom fit for occupation by public schools, because they are generally deficient in light, ventilation, and space, which are three essential elements for a healthy and successful school. It is therefore clearly our duty, on sanitary as well as financial grounds, to erect new houses for the schools, until the reasonable demand is supplied, rather than to rent old houses for their use." [Report of the School Commissioners of Baltimore, Md.]

PERNICIOUS METHODS OF HEATING SCHOOL-HOUSES.

Though no system of heating yet devised is entitled to unqualified praise, a few methods still employed in many localities deserve emphatic condemnation. The method described as follows by the acting school visitor of one of the Norwalk, Conn., districts is among these:

"Your visitor would most earnestly call attention to the methods of heating some of the rooms, and especially the two rooms of the higher grades. This is done by furnaces in the school-rooms below, and by means of registers in the floor, the air to which is only that which has been made impure and driven to the floor of the lower rooms! It is carbonized poison, heated to be more effective in its work on the scholars who breathe it again, not cooled and cleansed, but warmed into a new power for mischief. Your visitor was not surprised at the great sick-roll of those rooms. And yet these stoves are old, and the fact was mentioned to your visitor by a person who thought that the evil that had been endured for so long might still be borne! It is not at all clear to your visitor that our bracing east winds do not get credit for the weak lungs of so many of our young people, and for the large proportion of short graves in the adjacent venerable burialground that might better be given to these stoves which have been doing their deadly work, it may be, for some generations."

Inasmuch as the use of stoves is quite general, not only in the smaller cities, but in the older buildings of the larger cities as well, the reproduction of the following accounts of tests of their operation is not inopportune:

"Several observations have been taken of the temperature at different desks. In the rooms heated by furnaces and steam the variation in temperature is only a few degrees. But in those heated by wood-stoves it is very great. In severe weather, when a very brisk fire has to be kept, the variation is as high as twenty-five degrees. In one room

The word "large" is evidently used here in a relative sense. Buildings of ten or twelve rooms would hardly be called "large" except in comparison with those of only two or three rooms, such As are common in the smaller cities. [ED.]

the pupil nearest the stove was enjoying (?) a temperature of 92°, while one in the opposite corner was comfortable at 67°. Reducing the temperature to 80° the unfortunate at the back part of the room had to sit shivering at 55°. It has been found impossible so to distribute the heat from these stoves that there should not be a variation of at least ten degrees. If pupils in the back part of the rooms are to be kept comfortably warm at a temperature of 68°, those nearest the stove must endure 78° at least, and for an hour or two in the morning much more. If the rooms were larger the pupils would not be brought so near the stove, but in several rooms not more than three feet intervene between desks and stove.

"Again, the temperature of the air at different heights varies greatly. With the thermometer five feet from the floor registering 72°, one placed two feet lower indicated only 64°, a difference of eight degrees in the two feet, while in many of the rooms the floors are about 50°, varying as the air without varies, and seldom rising above 56°. With cold feet and hot heads, the pupils must suffer in their physical health, to say nothing of the impossibility of doing good mental work. Is it any wonder that our attendance is very irregular from illness?" [Mr. C. H. Morss, city superintendent, Portsmouth, N. H.]

"As stated by the best authorities, a school room should be heated in winter at a temperature not above 70° nor below 64° at the height of the head of a person sitting, and the temperature should not vary more than 4° between that point and two inches from the floor, or between any two points within five feet of the floor. To see how our schoolrooms are heated we began in December, 1887, a series of tests of the temperature in the new building in the Upper Village.

"The tests were taken in the following manner: A post was set up in front of the second desk back from the stove, another post was set up in front of the desk in the corner opposite the stove, and another in the middle of the room. On each post there were hung three thermometers, one at five feet, one at three feet, and one at five inches from the floor. By this arrangement there was a pupil who sat nearer and one who sat farther from the stove than any thermometer was hung. The readings of each thermometer were recorded six times a day during school hours, viz: at nine, ten, twelve, one, three, and four o'clock, for six days.

"Similar tests were afterwards made in all the rooms occupied by graded schools, with two exceptions. In the other rooms, however, the lower thermometers were hung two inches instead of five inches from the floor. In the rooms heated by furnace the posts were set, one near the door, one in the middle of the room, and one at the corner opposite the door; in some rooms the middle post was omitted.

"The thermometers were selected to read alike when placed side by side. The tests were being made in different rooms from December 21, 1887, to February 9, 1888. * * * "The result of these tests has surprised teachers who have taught in the same room for several years, and it will doubtless surprise some of the patrons of the school. The tests show that in the space occupied by the pupil, that is, in the lower five feet of room space, and within the area occupied by the seats, there are marked variations of temperature, not only at different heights from the floor, but at different parts of the room at the same height, and also at the same points at different hours of the day. They show that fires should be started in the school-room stoves at least an hour earlier than at present, in order that the rooms may be approximately comfortable at nine o'clock. They show that one thermometer is no test of the temperature of a room, and that two or more are not when hung at the same height from the floor. In the advanced grammar room, for instance, they show that while there was an average difference of less than four degrees between the temperature five feet from the floor at the front and at the same height at the rear of the room, yet there was at each point an average difference of over sixteen degrees between that point and one directly under it two inches from the floor, and a difference of twenty-six degrees between a point five feet from the floor at the front row of seats and one two inches from the floor at the rear row of seats. They show that in this room there was an average difference of ten degrees between the temperature at the height of the head and that at the feet of the pupils when sitting at their desks, and of over sixteen degrees when standing to recite or to work at the blackboard. They show that at the height of three feet from the floor there was an average variation from one observation to another, during the hours school was in session, of over seven degrees. A similar fluctuation in temperature will be noticed in all rooms where the heat is regulated or the room ventilated by opening windows or doors. The tests show that the temperature at the feet was much too cold, being an average of fiftyseven degrees in the front of the room, and a little less than fifty-four at the rear. The conditions in the other school rooms that are heated by stoves are substantially the

same.

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"In each of seven room's post 2 was placed in the north-east corner, and the record shows that in each there is a considerable space that is not warmed sufficiently, particularly in

which

the high-school room. To make matters worse, in this room, the assistant's room, is small, is shown by observation to be overheated. The change from the warm air of the recitation room to the cold air of the high-school room is a constant menace to the health of the pupil.

"That pupils who sit in these cold corners complain of being cold is not to be wondered at, and why pupils take cold at school is no longer a mystery.

"The buildings in the out districts can be no better. In one we found a difference of forty-four degrees between the temperature at a desk occupied by a pupil and the coldest end of the principal blackboard, at ten o'clock. Where there are such variations and fluctuations in temperature in the space occupied by the pupils as these tests have demonstrated, the method of heating is radically wrong." [Report of the School Committee of Athol, Mass.]

IRREGULARITY OF ATTENDANCE.

If there is any subject upon which there is universal agreement, that subject is the importance of prompt and regular attendance. The evils of irregularity are fully real

ized by superintendents, and many are the plans suggested for improvement.

Causes of irregularity.-Since it is always necessary to discover the causes of the trouble it is desired to remove in order to apply the proper remedy, the following extracts are given as representing the results of the investigations of a number of well-informed school officers:

Mr. George A. Littlefield, city superintendent, Newport, R. I.: "There is still too much irregularity in the attendance, and the chief cause of it is the readiness with which children obtain permission from their parents to be absent."

Superintendent O. J. Bainum, Olney, Ill.: "It is still a matter of regret that so many parents fail to recognize the importance of sending their children to school regularly. Too frequently children are allowed to remain out of school for the most trivial reasons."

The opinion that the parents of the delinquent pupils are responsible for the greater part of absences from school is also expressed by the chief school officers of Hopkinsville, Ky.; Putnam, Conn.; Hutchinson, Kans. ; Athol, Mass.; Vernon, Conn., and Galesburgh, Ill.

A truant officer of North Adams, Mass., during 1887-88, investigated 557 cases of suspected truancy and found that 123 of the number "were children who had started for school and found they were tardy and turned back, fearing that they would be punished, and for that reason preferred to lose the session, when they could bring in an exeuse from their parents." "Excepting those detained at home through sickness, this class of absentees was larger than any other.

Superintendent L. T. Regan, Morris, Ill.: “Tardiness usually comes from a want of punctual habits, and not from necessity.'

Superintendent John Cooper, Leavenworth, Kans.: "The question is often asked, 'Why do some teachers have so much better attendance than others?' The question is answered in the above, namely: One class of teachers make their schools attractive, pleasant places, while the other class make them unattractive, unpleasant, tiresome places. The hour of dismissal is hailed as the most pleasant."

*

Superintendent Henry A. Wise, Baltimore, Md.: "This steady and normal increase of attendance upon school duties * * should serve as an incentive to teachersif incentive be needed beyond the obligation under which they rest to promote the interests of the schools and the well-being of their pupils-to strive to improve by every means in their power the average attendance of their respective classes. Teachers differ very greatly on this subject. Some, without apparent effort, secure a very high average, while others, under similar circumstances, find themselves unable to bring the attendance of the class up to its normal condition. There are many causes which produce this result. It is very common to hear teachers naming circumstances beyond their control as a reason for a very low rate of attendance, forgetting that an allowance has already been made on account of these very circumstances. When the attendance of a class falls below eighty per cent., ordinary reasons can not be given to account for the fact, and the teacher should examine very closely to find whether the fault is in her stars or in herself. There is one reason that I will mention with the hope that the mentioning of it will produce good results. It is the lack of good disciplinary ability on the part of the teacher. This defect will deplete the attendance of a class more surely than measles or small-pox, and the greatest misfortune is that the depletion becomes permanent. It is a fact that children who have a teacher whom they love and respect for her good qualities recover more rapidly from an attack of sickness than those who are more unfortunately situated. Firm, kind, and methodic control of a class wins the respect and good will of the most turbulent and refractory pupil and creates in him a desire to be present at every session of the school."

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How irregularity may be decreased.-"Many of our teachers who have had a low per cent. of attendance are not aware what a power they themselves might be in raising the standard of their schools, and in securing punctuality. It is a fact, undeniable, that the most successful teacher is the one who sees her pupils oftenest in their homes. Visit the parents of your pupils, and by so doing you will show that you have a personal interest in each and every one-that their interest is your interest. Do this, and I believe your per cent. of attendance will be much better in the terms to come than past records have shown." [Superintendent O. W. Collins, Framingham, Mass.] "The monthly holiday was established by the board at the suggestion of your superintendent; it has been in vogue for nearly a year. The plan is this: All pupils who are perfect in attendance, 95 per cent. in deportment, and reach within three credits of the class average in the monthly examinations are allowed the last day of the school month as a holiday. The advantages are many. In every class is about a third of the scholars who are always behind and need individual attention; there are always some who, from absence, have missed the vital principles of that month's work. This gives the teacher an opportunity to work up the dull pupils, to assist those who have been absent, and it acts as a severe punishment to the boy or girl who, by disorderly conduct or inattention, has not obtained the required per cent. in deportment, and thus loses his or her holiday. At the same time it serves as an incentive for students to work for that holiday. It has been tried as an experiment, and while all the teachers say it is the hardest day in the month, they unite in saying it is of great advantage to the schools and they would not like to see it discontinued." [Superintendent F. P. Russell, San José, Cal.]

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"The means for compelling the attendance of pupils at school are as complete as they can well be made. # With a certain small class of pupils these means are necessary and effective in securing their attendance; and by the use of these means these children are compelled to stay in school when they would rather be at play or ranging about the street; and these, after a time, often learn to love the school and no longer need the restraint. But with all these appliances for securing school attendance, the chief reliance is the influence of the teacher in making the exercises of the school profitable and pleasing, and the influence of the parents, who desire for their children the best that is within their reach. To these influences, the good attendance is chiefly due." [Superintendent A. P. Marble, Worcester, Mass.]

"Scholars absent more than three days or tardy more than three times in any school month, without satisfactory excuse, may be suspended by the superintendent until the commencement of the next term." [One of the rules for the government of the Americus (Ga.) schools. ]

DISCIPLINE.

The proper discipline of the school-room and the most effective means of attaining it are subjects whose discussion will always interest those whose life is devoted to the training and management of children. Naturally, a goodly portion of each report is given to observations upon the importance of securing discipline of the right sort, and to suggestions as to the attitude of the teacher toward her pupils. Many of these observations and suggestions are reproduced below. They include remarks relating to the disciplinary ability of teachers, the reasons for maintaining discipline, comments upon the appearance of a well-disciplined school, and, finally, suggestions, more or less original, as to effective means of securing the good behavior on the part of children.

"Correct habits are largely the result of proper discipline; therefore, good discipline is the first essential of a good school, and one's ability agreeably to discipline a school properly is the first mark of his fitness for a position at the teacher's desk." [Superintendent William E. Buck, Manchester, N. H.]

"If a teacher, after a fair trial with a class, has to spend much of her time in talking about order, or has to scold, complain, or threaten to keep down noise and disorder, she has mistaken her calling. The first requisite to complete success is perfect control of the pupils. They must be orderly, attentive, and obedient. No matter how intelligent, enthusiastic, and energetic the teacher may be, if these first conditions of perfect control are not provided, all her efforts will be like applying steam to the locomotive when off the track-instead of progress there are only motion, noise, and danger." [Mr. John Burke, senior principal of schools, Newport, Ky.]

"The only object in the visible discipline of a school is to enable the scholars to study and think to the best advantage. Every useless motion or formula should be avoided, and no pupil should be left for an instant unoccupied. Obedience should be prompt and permanent, but the times of motionless quiet in the school-room, and of requiring pupils to sit erect with their hands folded on the desk, have happily passed, and it is now demanded that there shall be, especially in the lowest grades, a natural hum of business, and cheerful, orderly freedom from unnecessary restraint.' ["General Suggestions" in the course of study of the Newport (R. I.) schools.]

"The object aimed at in school is, of course, not merely order, but progress. The former is not the end, but it is a means. It is possible to pay more attention to securing the former than the latter. It is possible to insist on such intense order as to interfere with the pupils' progress in learning. But a reasonable degree of order and discipline is essential, and no satisfactory progress can be made without it." [Superintendent William H. Beach, Madison, Wis.]

"As a rule the children are allowed all the liberty consistent with propriety and progress." [Mr. Ulric Bettison, chief superintendent of public schools, New Orleans, La.] "The nervous and mental activity spent in legitimate work prepares the otherwise restless pupil for the necessary periods of general exercises or exacted repose, and the result is what the schools, with few exceptions, show-a good amount of stir with a minimum of impropriety." [Report of the School Committee of Chelsea, Mass.]

Teachers have learned that if they provide suitable occupation for their pupils the question of discipline solves itself. More attention has been given to substance; less to form." [Mr. John J. Jennings, acting school visitor, Bristol, Conn.]

"They control children best who induce them to control themselves; but teachers who attempt to govern their schools by a display of authority are not generally the most successful disciplinarians, and they do not do the best work in the instruction of their schools." [Superintendent A. P. Stone, Springfield, Mass.]

"There are pupils in nearly all our schools ready to take advantage of any weakness they may notice. But on the other hand there are a majority of tractable and well-behaved ones, ready and willing to co-operate with the teacher, and make her work pleasant. But the morsel of leaven leavens the whole, and it is the element of mischief and refraction which the teacher should learn to control if she would succeed. Here is where the iron hand in the velvet glove' is needed. The supremacy of the teacher should be made manifest, not by punishment, as in olden times, nor by too frequent displays of authority, but by the exercise of firmness united to kindness." [Superintendent S. S. Taylor, St. Paul, Minn.]

"When the teacher has exhausted his or her own governing power and the pupil persists in setting at naught the teacher's authority, the parents or guardians are fully informed through proper notices. First, a 'warning notice' is sent to parents or guardian. If no improvement results from this course, then a 'special notice' is sent. When a 'special notice' is sent to the parent or guardian, the pupil is not permitted to resume his seat until the parent or guardian shall call on the teacher and give satisfactory assurance of obedience and compliance with the rules of the school." [Superintendent John Cooper, Leavenworth, Kans.]

"The more closely each troublesome pupil is studied, the more fully the impulses that move him are understood, and the influences that surround him out of school are known, the more skilfully can the teacher adapt his discipline to the nature with which he has to deal." [Superintendent H. M. Maxson, Attleborough, Mass.]

"As long as children attend school, they should be treated as children and kept in a child-like spirit. It is not wise to treat them as young ladies and gentlemen as long as their character has not sufficiently matured to entitle them to be treated as such. Certain enjoyments, too, such as parties and balls, should be reserved for riper years. With all due regard for the opinions of children on popular subjects, candidly expressed, they should be given no more weight than they deserve." [Superintendent Henry Raab, Belleville, Ill.]

"It is suggested that children who can not get along in one school might do fairly well in another by being removed from their associates, and the committee recommend that power be given the committee by the board to make transfers on trial as a punishment, but not for the convenience of the pupils or to gratify a whim of the parents." [Committee on Visitation, Paterson, N. J.]

"There is a class of children whose presence among other children or classes demoralizes the school and wears out the patience and strength of teachers beyond all reasonable degree of endurance. Many of this class are marked by a vicious spirit, a reckless license and a gross disrespect for just rights and requirements, amounting to unbearable insolence. The time of children and teachers should not be devoted to these, nor should their malicious and unmanageable examples be tolerated, for it is our duty to shield the other children from such evil influences. We do not ask that these be expelled from our schools and sent upon the streets, but we urge that some provision be made to reclaim them, to restrain and regulate their conduct, by placing them in some special or ungraded school under a teacher peculiarly fitted for such service." [Superintendent O. B. Bruce, Lynn, Mass.]

INCORRIGIBLES AND HABITUAL TRUANTS.

School officers in those States in which compulsory attendance laws are enforced encounter difficulties in the discharge of their duties that are comparatively unknown in