and of union free schools and trustees of public school districts are authorized to establish departments in their schools for teaching and illustrating the manual or industrial arts, and to establish and maintain such shops as may be necessary for this purpose whenever the authorities now authorized by law to raise money by taxation for school purposes shall make provision for such departments, which they are now authorized to do. The State normal and training schools are required to include in their courses of instruction the principles underlying the manual or industrial arts, and also practical training in the same to such extent as the State superintendent may direct, and to such further extent as the local boards of such schools may direct.

NORTH CAROLINA.

[From Report for 1886-57 and 1887-88 of State Superintendent S. M. Finger.]

GENERAL STATEMENTS.

The statistical returns show that there has been a slight increase in school population, enrolment, and attendance. During the last four years the number of white children has increased 13.2 per cent., while the colored children increased 11.2 per cent. The increase in enrolment and average attendance of white children was a little greater than that of colored children. It is frequently stated that the colored children attend the public schools better than the white children, but the returns show that it is untrue. Besides, a large number of white children attend private schools. It should not be inferred from the fact that only 58 per cent of the children are enrolled that the remaining 12 per cent. never attend school at all. Many of those not enrolled have already attended school, perhaps for several years, others will attend afterwards, while others still are attending private schools or colleges. The schools have enrolled a larger per cent. of the total population of the State than we find enrolled in several of the States where the public schools have been placed in a very prosperous condition.

While some improvement has been made in the condition of the school-houses, a large number of them are unfit for use, and, in many cases, it is with risk to the health of the children that they are used.

One of the worst features of the public schools of the State is the short length of time they are in operation, the terms varying from two to four months, the average being only about twelve weeks. It is, of course, impossible for the schools to accomplish much in such short terms. When it is considered that several other Southern States, situated in the same way and laboring under the same difficulties, have much longer school terms, it would seem that the people of the State are not doing all they can towards the improvement of the public schools.

TEACHERS.

There are many teachers throughout the State who are yet only school-boys and school girls, without a sufficient knowledge of the studies they must teach, and especially without a knowledge of the best methods of imparting instruction and of governing a school. It is a very prevalent idea that it is only necessary for a person to understand the different text-books in order to make a successful teacher, but very great changes have been made in the methods of teaching, and as the public schools are permanent institutions, and those who become teachers in them are likely to remain so for several years, it is desirable that they acquire at first the knowledge which has been obtained by others after years of experience. The superintendent thinks that it would he well if some instruction as to the methods of teaching were given in the State University and the different colleges, but that a regular training school for white teachers should be established, eight thousand dollars per annum already being given to the normal schools of the colored people. The training school should be so conducted that the professors would have time to hold county institutes for two or three months in each year.

COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS.

It is urged that there are very strong reasons why the county superintendents of chos should be made treasurers of the boards of education, and so handle all of the school money, instead of it being done by the county treasurers as is now the case. At present the county superintendent is paid from two to three dollars per day for the work done while the county treasurer gets a larger amount for simply handling the money, which is a manifest injustice. Under the system before the War the county superintendent was paid two and one-half per cent. for managing the school funds, and if he visited the schools he was paid an additional amount. The expense of the school management then was about the same as at present, but the superintendent got the benefit of it all and so, as the remuneration was greater, better men could be obtained as superintendents. There is much greater need of competent superintendents now than

then, as there is much more work for them to do, and much greater need of supervision. While examinations serve as a primary test of the competency of teachers, the ultimate test can only be made in the school-room, and should be made by the superintendent, and the teacher graded accordingly. It is highly important that such legislation be made as will transfer the management of the school funds to the county superintendents, and if done the commission for its management may be reduced from three to two per cent., which will save a considerable amount. It would add very much to the convenience of teachers, committeemen, and others, and would secure to the State superintendent prompt reports of the receipts and disbursements of funds-something which he has not been able to obtain from county treasurers.

SCHOOL FUNDS.

The chief cause of inferior school-houses and insufficient teachers is the want of sufficient funds. While the amount spent for school purposes throughout the United States was about two dollars per capita of the total population, in North Carolina it was only thirty-nine cents per capita. The Constitution of the State requires the General Assembly to provide for the maintenance of a system of public schools by taxation and otherwise, and it is a mistake to suppose that measures for this purpose will be unfavorably received by the people. It is true that the people of the State are poor and should be taxed as little as possible, but on account of this poverty the public schools are a greater necessity, in order that the children may be educated at home.

MANUAL TRAINING AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.

In this respect the boys and girls in the rural districts have an advantage over those in the cities, for the work that a farmer boy has to do-sharpening plows, repairing machinery, making hoe-handles, ax-handles, etc.-requires him to reason, think, and observe. The girls, too, find abundant work in the field and house to keep both brains and hands busy, and to secure mental and physical development. Three-fourths of the people of the State are agriculturists, and, as soon as it can be done advisably, some instruction should be given in the public schools as to the elementary principles of agriculture.

OPPOSITION TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

Superintendent Finger states that it is needless to disguise the fact that there is strong opposition in North Carolina to the public school system. This arises in the first place from the sentiment that it is wrong to tax one man to educate the children of another. Those who hold to such opinions consider the education given by the public as a charity, just as when food is given to those suffering from want. But this was not the principle upon which State education was founded. It was thought necessary that the people be educated in order that they might properly discharge their duties as citizens, and secure the safety of the established institutions; and it was recognized that the material progress and prosperity of the people depended to a large extent upon their intelligence; proofs of which can be easily found in our own country.

Another cause of antagonism to the public schools is the heavy burden of taxation cast upon the impoverished white people of the State who pay nearly all the taxes which go to support the schools of both whites and colored. This antagonism is intensified by the prevalent opinion that education spoils the negro as a laborer. It is estimated, too, that from fifteen to twenty thousand negroes do not list themselves for taxation, and a large portion of those listed fail to pay the tax, so that in these two ways there is a loss to the school fund of about seventy-five thousand dollars, besides a loss to the poor fund of twenty-five thousand dollars.

PRIVATE SCHOOLS.

Although it was impossible to get full information as to the private schools and colleges of the State, the statistics are sufficient to show that this is a very important item and becoming more so every year. About twenty-five thousand of the young people of the State are attending them. It is a matter of congratulation that the efforts made to raise endowments for the different colleges of the State have been so successful, but efforts should be made to establish institutions for the young women also.

RECOMMENDATIONS.

The following recommendations were made to the Legislature: That the law be so amended as to require the condemnation of houses unfit for use and the construction of better ones.

The establishment of a thorough system of county institutes and examination of teachers, and that all teachers be required to attend the institutes.

The establishment for the whites of a teachers' training-school, and an appropriation for this purpose and for the county institutes of $10,000 per annum.

The abolition of the present summer normal schools.

If the financial condition of the people will bear it, an additional annual appropriation by the General Assembly, to be distributed to such districts as will supplement by private subscriptions their school fund, and to such towns, townships, and cities as supplemented their funds by special taxes.

More active supervision by county superintendents and better pay for them.

Severe penalties upon all officers who have anything to do with levying, collecting, or disbursing school funds if they fail to perform their respective duties.

That the county superintendent be made the treasurer of the board of education. An amendment to the constitution allowing taxation for schools beyond 66 cents on $100 of property, and $2 on the poll.

That teachers shall be examined on some work on methods of teaching and school management.

That the fiscal year of schools close June 30 instead of November 30.

OHIO.

For information contained in this report relating to education in Ohio consult the Index. If the State School Report is received in season, an abstract of it will be given at the close of this volume.

OREGON.

[From Report for 1886-87 and 1887-88 of State Superintendent E. B. McElroy.]

In compliance with the laws of Oregon, the superintendent visited many of the schools of the State, and he made close inspection as to the condition of school-buildings as regards ventilation, lighting, and heating, neatness of rooms, the condition of the school grounds, the attendance of pupils, the methods of the teachers, etc.

In some places the school buildings and the care of the school grounds gave strong evidence of enterprise and progress; but in others the very reverse was true-buildings dilapidated, grounds unenclosed, no shade trees, and a general appearance of a want of progress. In the towns and cities the schools were usually in a flourishing condition, good teachers were employed, and the furniture was of the latest and most improved character. The superintendent also visited some of the best schools of Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Pennsylvania.

PUBLIC EDUCATION.

Schools and higher institutions of learning are established in all parts of the State, so that a free education is offered to every youth, and the avenues to success and honor are open to all. Hundreds of intelligent men and women have been added to the communities, and the benign influences of the schools are found on every side; and as the public schools have now become an established institution, it only remains for the people to strengthen, improve, and elevate them,

DISTRICTS.

The reports of the county superintendents show that in March, 1888, the number of organized school districts in the State was 1,518. Some of these districts were very large, fifteen to twenty-five square miles, while the average size of the districts was about nine square miles. The boundaries of the districts are very irregular, and in some cases the districts are divided by deep ravines or rocky spurs. In some districts which are very large the schools are located near the centre, and some of the children are required to go for miles to school; but in the more populous communities the districts are small, the school-house is within easy reach of all the pupils, and consequently the attendance is more punctual and regular. The board of directors of each district has the anthority to locate the school-house, and in all cases it should be done with reference to the convenience of the pupils and the future growth of the community.

SCHOOL CENSUS.

"The annual census made by school clerks in 1887 gives an enrolment of 87,217 persons who drew public school funds. The census completed March 5, 1888, gives an enrolment of 86,574, a decrease in one year of 643. It would appear from this that our State is on the decline rather than advancing. This is not correct. On the contrary. it is well known that, in addition to the natural increase in the State, the immigration from March, 1887, to March, 1888, was large, and, in the major portion of it, permanent. The decrease appearing above, therefore, is not real. The new law controlling the census report was approved February 17, 1887. Prior to that time the methods adopted in making the annual census returns were exceedingly careless and reckless.

"It was not uncommon for children to be enrolled in two districts, and in some instances in three. The new school law requires each clerk to enroll for school purposes all persons in each district over four and under twenty years of age. This census must contain the names and ages of all children of the school ages mentioned above, and shall also contain the names of all parents and guardians resident in the district. This enumeration is to include all youth who, at the time of taking such enumeration, actually dwell or have their home in the district."

The good results of the new law are already apparent in securing correct and accurate returns. The number of children receiving a pro rata share of the public funds is not the result of estimates and exaggeration.

COUNTY SUPERVISION.

In some counties of the State the salary of the county superintendent is so small that the office is a merely nominal one, and no interest is taken in the election of a suitable person. This is a great mistake. A competent and energetic school superintendent would be of great assistance to the schools in introducing new methods, giving directions to teachers, assisting in classifying the pupils, and in many other ways. Especially in a new State like Oregon, where the population is rapidly increasing and many new enterprises are being undertaken, would a county superintendent be of great benefit to the schools.

TEACHERS.

The demand for earnest, progressive teachers is increasing throughout the State and the teachers already in service are making many improvements, adopting new methods, and qualifying themselves for more efficient service. There is a tendency among some of the directors to employ cheap teachers, and frequently a young, inexperienced teacher is employed because he can be engaged for less money, or because of the importunities of some of his relatives; and in this way the experienced and thoroughly qualitied teachers are driven into other businesses or to States where they will be better appreciated. Teachers, in order to do their work well, should thoroughly understand it, and they should not attempt to cover too much ground, but instead should endeavor to make the children understand fully what is taught.

SCHOOL-HOUSES.

From the reports of the county superintendents it is estimated that the number of school-houses in the State at the close of the year 1888 was about fourteen hundred and fifty, about ninety per cent. being frame buildings, the remainder being of bricks or logs. During the last six years about one hundred buildings, on an average, were erected each year. Many of the school-houses are comfortable and elegant buildings, but others are in a bad condition, and in some cases unit for use.

In a late edition of the school laws, as well as in the biennial report of the superintendent, plans and directions for village and rural school-buildings were given for the guidance of school officers and patrons. When possible the school-house should be erected in the centre of the district, rather than the centre of population, as the latter is liable to change. It should be situated on a gently rising elevation, and attention should be given to proper lighting, heatin, and ventilation, cloak rooms should be provided, and a closet for the safe-keeping of movable articles.

NEW LEGISLATION.

Teachers' caminations and certificates.—The new law relative to teachers' examinations, approved February 21, 1987, is as follows: In each county there shall be a board of examiners, consisting of the county superintendents and two competent persons appointed by the county superintendent, who shali serve one year, and each shall receive three dollars per day for the time actually employed in conducting the quarterly examinations, which shall be held on the last Wednesday of February, May, August, and November of each year.

Certificates shall be of the first, second, and third grade, and shall continue in force for two years, one year, and six months, respectively. Certificates of the first grade shall not be issued to any one under eighteen years of age, nor to any one who has not taught successfully for at least twelve school months, and then only when he or she shall have stood an examination on all the branches required by law, and shall have answered ninety per cent. of all questions asked, falling below seventy per cent. in no branch. Certificates of the first grade may be renewed once upon the payment of a fee of two dollars and fifty cents.

Certificates of the second grade shall not be granted persons under seventeen years of age, and then only when they shall have stood an examination, making an average of eighty per cent. on all branches, falling below sixty per cent. in no branch. Certificates of the third grade shall only be granted those persons who make an average of not less than seventy per cent. on all the branches, falling below forty per cent. in no branch.

RECOMMENDATIONS.

(1) The schools should be closely inspected by the directors.

(2) Each school should be supplied with a dictionary and the necessary apparatus. (3) The salaries of teachers should be graded according to the experience and grade of certificate held.

(4) Directors should employ experienced teachers for the primary grades.

(5) Successful and efficient teachers should be retained and their pay increased.

(6) A longer and continuous school term should be established.

(7) A graded course of study should be established in each county.

(8) County superintendents should devote their entire time to general and local supervision, and should receive adequate salaries.

(9) Normal institutes should be established in each county.

(10) Teachers' associations should be established.

(11) School districts should be required to build wood-sheds and other necessary outhouses for the health and comfort of teachers and pupils.

(12) Public examinations of the schools should be held at the close of each term by the county superintendent or his deputy, and promotions made and diplomas granted. (13) New school districts should be required to establish a school at the expiration of one year after organization.

(14) School moneys should be apportioned on a basis of the actual total attendance, instead of the total school population between the ages of four and twenty years.

(15) The rate-bill plan of securing funds should be eliminated from our school system.

PENNSYLVANIA.

[From Report for 1887-88 of State Superintendent E. E. Higbee.]

GENERAL CONDITION.

The year 1887-88 was one of unusual progress in the public schools of Pennsylvania. An advance along the whole line seems to have been made. Although there were two hundred and eighty more schools than in the previous year, yet the school term was longer, being, exclusive of Philadelphia, where the term is ten months, 7.17 months, while in the previous year it was only 6.71. This is to be attributed in great part to the requirement of six months as the minimum school term. It was expected by many that, as a result of lengthening the minimum term, the monthly salaries of teachers would be reduced proportionally, but on the contrary there never has been so large an increase in the money paid to teachers. Large and well-arranged school buildings have been erected in New Castle, Phillipsburg, Braddock, Williamsport, Harrisburg, Bedford, Kittanning, and elsewhere. Many libraries have been organized and others enlarged. Freehand and mechanical drawing have been introduced in many of the schools.

SCHOOL CENSUS.

The number of pupils now enrolled in the public schools, exclusive of those in Philadelphia, is 831,367; an increase over the previous year of 10,556. After making all due allowance for those who attend private schools, this still leaves a large number of children of school age who attend no school. As no yearly enumeration of the children is made, it is impossible to determine definitely the number of those who do not attend any school. It is therefore recommended that it be made the duty of the district directors to make an annual enumeration of the children in their districts, so that the number not attending school can be ascertained and steps taken to secure their attendance.

SUPERVISION.

"No one at all acquainted with educational work can fail to recognize the necessity of close inspection. In our city schools, where generally the interests of education are well advanced, and great pride is taken in its success, careful inspection is, in most cases, secured. Professional educators, of superior attainments and skill, are employed, with such remuneration as their high standing demands. But in our rural districts and spiller villages, where an inspection of kindred character is perhaps even more needed, this important matter has been too, much and too long neglected.

"Our county superintendents have done a great work since 1854, but their fields of administration are so large as to render any close inspection upon their part impossible. They need help. Their own work, to be made thorough and efficient, must be supplemented by the aid or assistant district superintendents. How can one man attend to the general matters of county school administration and at the same time carefully inspect from two to four hundred schools in districts scattered over the whole area of a county? It is simply impossible."