the later Books of the Old Testament, since the necessity of assisting the reader was in the course of time more strongly felt. The letters X, 1, and ', producing the scriptio plena, are with obvious appropriateness called guides for reading (matres lectionis).—At the end of words, the scriptio defectiva is not allowed, and it would, for instance, שִׁירוֹ for שִׁיר שִׁירִי for שִׁיר be inadmissible to write 7. As quiescent letters naturally cause a more prolonged pronunciation of the preceding vowels, segol, when followed by a quiescent X, ', or Л, takes the value, of a long vowel, though it is properly and commonly short, e. g.,, X' (Isa. xl. 4), 7. 8. As has been observed above, the three vowels kamets, chirek, and shurek, formed the basis of Hebrew vocalisation, and it appears that they were variously combined to produce the two other vowels, kamets and chirek amalgamating into tsere, and kamets and shurek into cholem. Hence the following vowels are considered to be kindred to each other: (a). Kamets, pathach, and segol. (b). Chirek magnum, chirek parvum, tsere, and segol. (c). Shurek, kibbuts, cholem, and kamets chatuph. The vowels belonging to the same class may be interchanged under certain conditions, which later rules will specify; thus may, in some cases, be converted into, § 17, ii. 1, 3.) into EXERCISE IV. , etc. (See The quiescent letters N, 1,, and, are to be expressed, respectively, by a small a, u, i and h, placed in parenthesis after the vowel; e.g. N? is to be written ba(a)-nu(u), ?? ke-le(a), п?? bi(i)-na(h), ПȚ¥ tse(i)-d'a(h). The long vowels may, besides, be marked by a small horizontal line (-), the short vowels by a semicircle (~) above them; e.g. D and D are to be written yām and yăm. The consonants are to be represented as stated in the note on p. 6. I. Pronounce, and write in English letters, the following Hebrew words: כל אֲשֶׁר גֶד בֶּן וִיהוּדָה, לֵוִי בָּאוּ וּבֵיתוֹ אִישׁ אֶת אֵת, ,נֶפֶשׁ, הַהוּא, 17, 73, bai ‚way, thì, obim, mba, awɩ, oby, num, api', WN7, 1108 2. ‚~170, Dow, 179, byi, 1787, DỌN, yaw, wan, now, by a Just as in French ai is pronounced like é, and au like o. 3. ‚jen, 19, 19, Api), Da, 19, 19, NW), 1by, „aby, mb, niņ, naip, 019, naw, xizm, 151, II. Write the following words in Hebrew letters, as indicated in the note at the beginning of this Exercise: I. T'ov', tê-v'ath, gō-mě(a), bă-ch'e-mar, zě-phěth, yě-lěd', 2. s'u(u)ph, ō-shěk', bò(u)-r-ăch, yā-yin, yō(u)-nā(h), 3. shō(u)-phār, 'õ(u)-d'ě(h), nõ-shě(h), yā-'î(i)r, mē-rā-chōk', 4. yē-ˆã-sě(h), pā-råsh, yăď, nă-aår, bō-chě(h), ˆā-lā(i)v, tō(a)-měr, 5. shě-lăch', k'á-rá(a)-thi(i), mē(i)-ně-k'ěth, lē-chi(i), ’ēm, tik'-rā(a}, 6. mō-shě(h), hā-hēm, vā-yō(u)m, shi-lõ(h), shi-lō-ăch', shō-'ēl, 7. yā-ch'ēl, hō(u)-'ēl, yā-vān, 'ō-sher, shù(u)-v'ā(h), 'ē(i)n, 8. bă-ch'ō(u)l, yē-tsē(a), shë-ni(i), lā-rā-shā', rē-ě-chā, rām, 9. sår, shō-phēt', 'a-lē(i)-nū(u), 'ō-mēr, yī(i)-rā(a), 'ā-chēn, 10, nõ(u)-ď’ă, yë-shëv', kō-hën, shě-v'ă, să-v’ē-ď, bě-lă, zã-rãch', 11. zā-nõ(u)-ăch', yā-si(i)m, dē-ď, shō-v'ēr, mě-lăch', yě-shď, I2. gi() ăch, bô-đa, gā-phê(i), shō(u)-a, shō-k'ē-k'ā(h), 13. bě-ā-sār, shě-lăch', shō-v'e(i)-hěm, lī(i)-rē-'ā(i)v, 'o-sě(h), 14. bã-nō(u)th, tā-v'õ(a)-nā(h), nō-sē(a), mō-shēl, hā-rō-'î(i)m, 15. ts(a)-năm, dā-lā(h), le-ch'ěm, la-shě-v'ěth, tē-lēd', bō-ʻăz, 16. hä-yi(i)-thi(i), gēr, nā-tsål. § 4. THE SH'VA. 1. Every consonant, standing at the beginning or in the middle of a word, and neither provided with a vowel nor quiescent, is furnished with a sign to indicate the absence of the vowel. This sign consists of two dots, one beneath the other (:), which are placed under the consonant, and it is called sh'va (N), which, probably signifying emptiness, expresses its nature and function; thus sha-măr-tā is ♫pv, yā-tsăr-tā is ; but the Nin N has no shʼva, because it is quiescent. 2. At the end of words, the sh'va is written only when another sh'va precedes, e.g. nap, by, or originally preceded, e.g. p? ... ,The final letter | alone .נָתַנְתְּ for נָתַתָּ יִחְךְ for יְחַךְ לָקַחְתָּ for if without a vowel, is always provided with sh’va, perhaps simply for calligraphical reasons, e.g. DD s'ăr-těm, but lěch. 3. It will readily be seen, that the sh'va has a twofold character according to its position at the beginning, or in the middle and at the end of syllables. For if, for instance, the pronunciation of?,and is compared, it is obvious, that while, in the first case, the is ら unavoidably heard with a vowel almost similar to a short e—lěchā, the in the second word läch is merely a consonant articulated with the preceding vowel kamets. Nor is the sh'va sounded in the middle of a syllable, e.g. is nerd. Hence two kinds of sh'va are distinguished: 1. The moveable sh'va, or sh'va mobile, at the beginning of 2. The resting sh'va, or sh'va quiescens, in the middle and at the end of syllables. 4. If sh'va mobile is spoken with one of the gutturals N, 7, 7, or y-letters of a peculiarly strong or harsh sound—it is necessarily articulated with greater distinctness and expanded into a short auxiliary vowel. The gutturals, therefore, never take a simple sh’va mobile, but adding to it either pathach, or segol, or kamets chatuph, form the combinations -:,::, and T, which are respectively called chateph-pathach, chateph-segol, and chateph-kamets, e.g. Ch'anoch TT: .choda-shim חָדָשִׁים,Edom אֱדוֹם,(Enoch) וּסְעָדָה קָדְקָדוֹ וּשְׁקָה רִבְבוֹת הַמְטַהֵר שׁוֹטְטוּ .gutturals also, e.g The first and the third of these signs occur sometimes under non TT 5. In order to decide whether a sh'va is mobile or quiescent, the following rules will suffice: (a). At the beginning of a word, the sh'va is, of course, always רְצֵה,שְׁמִי-mobile (b). At the end of a word, it is always quiescent; and if two sh❜vas conclude the word, they are both quiescent-77, 7. (c). In the middle of a word, after a long vowel, it is in most cases (d). After a short vowel, it is generally quiescent-Dapp, Siap, אָפְפוּ רוֹמְמוּ בִּרְכוּ-mobile (e). Of two successive sh'vas in the middle of words, the first is quiescent, the second mobile-?! yik'-rev'u (comp. § 5. 8. d.) (f). If, in a given word, sh'va precedes an aspirate (,,,, ,) provided with dagesh, it is quiescent, that is, it concludes the syllable, because the dagesh lene can stand only at the beginning of a new syllable (§ 2. 3.); e.g. p is not k'a-meti, but k'am-ti, since in the former case, the could not have dagesh lene.-It is obvious that, in instances like these, the dagesh and the sh'va explain each other: the sh'va under the in' is quiescent, because the following aspirate has a dagesh lene; and then has a dagesh lene, because has a sh❜va quiescent; whereas the sh'va in words like for if it were quiescent, the aspirate would require a dagesh lene. 6(a). Two sh’vas at the beginning of a word cannot be pronounced, since they would both be mobile, as in . Therefore, in order to avoid two sh’vas in such a position, the first is changed into a short auxiliary vowel, usually chirek, or if one of the first two consonants is a guttural, into chateph-pathach, chateph-segol, or chateph-kamets; is mobile, (b). Of three sh'vas at the beginning of a word, the first remains, while the second and third are combined into a short syllable in the (c). The particle and is changed into before a labial, and before any non-guttural with sh'va, except ', with which it, is combined into וְמַלְכוּת for וּמַלְכוּת וְבִנְךָ is written for וּבִנְךְ .the syllable, eg וִימִין but ; וְצָעָקִי for וּצְעָקִי וְזְהַב for וּזְהַב וְכְלֵי for וּכְלֵי וְלְךְ for וּלְךְ for (see §§ 11. 6; 16. 4; 17. iii. 1). (d). A double sh'va mobile in the middle is treated in the same manner as at the beginning of words; e. g. 7 becomes 7, second mobile, no alteration is necessary, as, (see No. 5. e). EXERCISE V. Which of the sh'vas occurring in the following words are mobile, and which quiescent? and for what reasons? The quantity of the doubtful vowels chirek and shurek, unless manifest from the nature of the words, is added in parenthesis, in order to facilitate the decision in cases embraced by 5 c, d. 23. 'anbw; 24.1177va; 25.13; 26.1pbw (~); 27. NȚ (1); 50. pp. § 5. DAGESH FORTE, AND ITS DISTINCTION FROM DAGESH LENE. 1. If in the same word the same consonant occurs twice successively after a short vowel, and in such a connection that the first ought to have sh'va quiescens, the consonant is written only once, but furnished with a dot to indicate the reduplication. This dot is called strong dagesh, or dagesh forte; e.g. 7 becomes 7, (Job xx. 10), (Psa. ix. 14)-(iv. 2). 2. The same sign is used when one of the weaker letters, as the liquids or, provided with sh'va quiescens, is changed into the succeeding consonant, or, as it is termed, is assimilated to it, e.g. and in the same manner the ;יְקַח יִקְקַח יִלְקַח יַעַל-יִזְזַל יִנְזַל of the particle from, of, is frequently assimilated to the first con The dagesh is, in .מִסְלַע מִן סֶלַע sonant of the following word, as these cases, called dagesh forte compensativum or necessarium. 3. If the six aspirates (1, 1, etc.) have dagesh forte, they lose the aspiration, and are pronounced hard, or as tenues, e.g. Dan (for D) is shi-ch'at-tem, 'tup-pim. In such instances, the dagesh forte implies, therefore, the dagesh lene also. 4. The gutturals &,, n, y, and 7, do not take the dagesh forte, but the omission is generally compensated by some appropriate modification of the weakened syllable (see, however, No. 6; § 16. 1, 2). 5. Nor, is the dagesh forte ever written at the end of words; e. g. , but ; 77, but 17. Sometimes it is omitted in the middle of |