✓

23. Of the fourteen passengers, all men,- none was killed, but eight were severely injured. A severe storm prevailed, and the injured suffered greatly.

√24. After this, five of the knights which were chosen advanced, and with reversed lances touched the shield of their champion.

25. He went up and struck Gilbert's shield, which started the combat at once.

26. In the following examples the sound of sentences are marred by repetitions.

27. Different provinces furnished men peculiarly fitted to different occupations.

28. Two awful piles of wreck and ruin are in view, mingled with the broken bones and mangled bodies of the passengers. It catches fire, and the flames envelop all.

CHAPTER IV.

CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY.

Good Style. Though the pupil has now been warned against the errors in diction and grammar which inexperienced writers are apt to commit, and though he may thoroughly understand what these errors are and how to avoid them, he is not necessarily an accomplished and agreeable writer. If he is not, the main cause of this failure may be that he has no interesting and entertaining thoughts to communicate to his readers; but an additional cause will be found in his inability to express his thoughts in a pleasing manner.

A boy may have witnessed an exceedingly amusing occurrence; and yet the letter in which he gives the account to his friends may be neither entertaining nor interesting. The failure to entertain by the written account cannot be due to the lack of subject matter, but to the fact that his ideas cannot be apprehended without great effort on the part of the reader. The reader has been tired by the use of unnecessary words, or words have been left out without which the writer's ideas could not be well understood. The sentences are confused, and so arranged that they do not bring out the meaning clearly and forcibly; and the important thoughts have no emphasis. Another reason for the lack of interest will probably be found in the absence of all illustration, and in a consequent literalness of expression, so that

nothing is suggested to the reader beyond the facts related.

An analysis of such a letter might fail to reveal any mistake in the use of words or any solecism; the subject is known to be interesting, and yet the letter fails to please. Evidently, there must be some further improvement in the style of the writer. Accordingly, the following pages are devoted to those rules of rhetoric the observance of which will enable one to express his thoughts clearly, forcibly, and in sentences whose sound is pleasing to the listener; and an attempt will be made to exhibit to him the power which lies in the use of figurative language, by which a thought may be suggested in a clearer and more forcible way than it can be stated literally.

Benefit from Instruction in Rhetoric.1 It is extremely likely that some students will make these improvements by unconsciously imitating the style of the authors whose books they read, and that others will never remedy all their faults under any method of instruction. Nevertheless it is possible to aid the weakest and to hasten the progress of the strongest, by familiarizing them with the principles of good style, giving them a clear idea of what constitutes beauty, and what is a blemish. By applying the rules given in the following pages, students may detect the blemishes in their writing, and, by making a revision of what they have first written, give a more creditable and agreeable account.

CLEARNESS.

That no effort may be wasted by the reader in attempting to discover the meaning of words and sentences, or in 1 See Herbert Spencer's "Philosophy of Style."

trying to decide which of two or more possible meanings is the one intended, a writer should select and arrange his words, not only so that they may be understood, but, if possible, so that they cannot be misunderstood.

The following are special rules designed to aid in securing this standard of clearness.

I. Modifying words, phrases, and clauses should, if possible, be placed so that there can be no mistake as to what they modify.

(a) By placing modifiers too far from the words which they modify.

Violation. He made amends when he discovered his error, like

a man.

Correction.

He made amends like a man, when he discovered his error; or, Like a man, he made amends when he discovered his error.

- I only have gratitude for you.

Correction. I have only gratitude for you; or, I have gratitude for you only.

Only is more frequently misplaced than any other adverb.

Violation. - I went out in the storm and lost my hat when she

called.

Correction. I went out in the storm when she called, and lost my hat; or, When she called, I went out in the storm and lost my hat.

Violation.

The police officer entered as the criminal sat down, by the open window.

Correction. The police officer entered by the open window, as the criminal sat down; or, As the criminal sat down by the open window, the police officer entered.

NOTE.

Special care is necessary to avoid ambiguity in the use of participial constructions.

Violation.

Being in the depths of despair, the sea became the

refuge that he had long been seeking.

Correction..

- The sea became the refuge that he, being in the depths of despair, had long been seeking.

(b) By placing a modifier so that it may be taken with the part of the sentence preceding or following it.

Violation. - Telephone the doctor, if he comes home before seven, to call this evening.

Correction. Telephone the doctor to call this evening if he comes home before seven; or, If he comes home before seven, telephone the doctor to call this evening.

Punctuation not Sufficient. Separating a modifying phrase by a comma often indicates that it should not be taken with the part of the sentence immediately preceding; and though the clearness of a faulty sentence may be improved in this way, it is always better to put the phrase in its proper position, if possible.

Ex. It is reported that Mr. Brown is at the point of death at his father's summer resort from typhoid fever.

Though the clearness of this sentence might be improved by placing a comma before the phrase from typhoid fever, the proper correction is as follows:

It is reported that Mr. Brown is at the point of death from typhoid fever at his father's summer resort.

II. Every pronoun should be so placed that its antecedent cannot be mistaken.

This rule is probably more frequently violated than any other rule of rhetoric.