to be covered and the order in which they should be taken up.

There is nothing unnatural or artificial in the construction of an outline. Let us suppose that a boy has received an invitation which he is very anxious to accept, and that his father has said to him, “I hardly think I can allow you to go; but come to me in half an hour, and we will talk it over." Now, if that boy has ordinary intelligence, he will spend the half hour in thinking up all possible objections his father might have, and in finding an answer to each one. He will decide what he will say first, what he will say next, and what argument he will reserve to the end. The boy will, in other words, make an outline. He may trust to his memory to remember the order he has arranged; but if he should make a note of the outline in writing, he would be more certain to cover every point, and better able to concentrate his attention on each point as he takes it up. Lawyers speak from briefs; and the most eloquent ministers generally have an outline or a few notes which enable them to deliver their sermons without reading them or committing them to memory.

Avoid Artificial Methods. Mistakes are often made by teaching scholars artificial methods of making outlines. It is not necessary to ask yourselves such questions as When? Where? How? Who? and others equally mechanical. But simply sort out your knowledge under such heads as suggest themselves most naturally, and arrange these in the best order.

The publisher of one of the most popular magazines recently said that the beginning and ending of most articles from new contributors could be cut off without SCH. ENG.- - 14

harm to the articles. Do not feel it necessary to begin with remarks more or less irrelevant to the subject for the sake of having an introduction; and after you are through, do not think you must add a conclusion. Begin your subject without any apology or explanation; and let the first item of your outline be a part of the information you wish to convey; and when you have covered every point, nothing more is necessary.

WRITING THE ESSAY.

Make Use of the Outline. When the outline is finished, you are ready to write. But the work is two thirds over when you have reached this point. Develop each item of the outline as fully as you can. When you have covered all the items, look carefully over your work with a view, if possible, to improving the arrangement of the matter and weaving together what has been written on the different points. Criticise the language you have used. Correct every error you have made in grammar or in the choice of words, and every sentence that lacks clearness. Make such changes as you see will improve the force and harmony of your work. Finally copy the essay as corrected.

Write carefully from the Start. Do not write carelessly at first, because you intend to copy the first draught. Write always as carefully as you can. Capitalize and punctuate as you go along. As was said in the chapter on letter writing, carefulness will not prevent naturalness in writing. Never allow a mistake to go uncorrected. If after the work is copied, you discover too many errors to correct without spoiling the appearance of a page, copy that page again.

For original work, as has been already shown, one will draw his ideas very largely from books, and the question will arise, How far is it proper to take the thoughts or words of others? Of course, it is never right to copy the exact words of others without inclosing the passage taken in quotation marks; nor should you deliberately take the ideas of another and advance them as your own. Unless quoting, it is best not to write with your authorities open before you, except when referring to dates and similar matter of record, or when designedly introducing a condensed statement of another's work. When, however, by reading or study you have worked into your own mind the knowledge or opinions of others, so that you are able to reflect intelligently on this knowledge, you need have no hesitation in writing down whatever you think on any subject, even though your thoughts be similar to those you have read.

CHAPTER VI.

DEBATE.

Natural Tendency to Debate. The object of much of our writing and talking is to convince others of an opinion, or to persuade them to a certain course of action. If we enter a room and find an animated conversation in progress, we may be quite sure that some sort of argument is going on. This is apt to be the case, even if the persons engaged in the conversation are very young children, whose arguments as to the relative merits of their respective parents, brothers, or games, are as serious to themselves as they are entertaining to the listener.

Letters and most other forms of composition are apt to be argumentative in their nature. Lawyers, preachers, and public speakers of all sorts, deal chiefly with some form of persuasion. When a number of school or college students come together voluntarily for the object of literary improvement, their exercises generally take the form of debate.

When, therefore, we urge the student to be natural in his composition, we must expect that much of his writing will be argumentative. In spite, however, of this natural tendency, few people have the ability to argue well. The strife incident to the difference of opinion between uneducated people, the unsatisfactory results from their discussions, and the ease with which

skilled orators can turn an excited audience from one opinion to another, show clearly that the force of an argument depends chiefly on the way in which it is put.

Logic and Rhetoric. The study of the laws of thought and an analysis of the ways in which the human mind arrives at knowledge and conviction, do not belong to our subject. But when one is attempting to prove any proposition, or to convince readers or listeners of any matter, it is most important that he should express himself so that his ideas may be apprehended with the least possible effort. Without method most arguments become a hopeless confusion of facts, beliefs, and illustrations. Often the real question is lost sight of, and much breath or ink expended to no purpose. We, therefore, give a few suggestions, the observance of which will enable the student to arrange the material to be used in an argument, so that the reader or listener will readily appreciate its bearing upon the question at issue.

SUGGESTIONS.

I. Begin with a clear and complete explanation of the question.

Before arguments on either side can have any weight, the exact nature and extent of the question must be thoroughly understood: therefore the first requisite for an intelligent and persuasive argument is a clear and complete exposition. Nothing else will aid so much towards securing a speedy and satisfactory settlement. For example, a body of men, in drawing up regulations for a charitable institution, are