published. With the exception of the land, 195 are Scandinavian types, and shores of Smith's Sound in North Amer- only twelve are American or Asiatic ica, Spitzbergen is the most northerly types.

land yet trodden by the foot of restless A glance at the map for the position of explorers, and from its relative accessi- the Spitzbergen group will enable the bility its vegetation is perhaps better known than any other part lying far within the Arctic circle. For this reason, and on account of their high latitude, we have chosen the vegetation of the Spitzbergen Islands to illustrate the whole flora of the Arctic regions. We have been influenced in this choice, too, by the fact that many of the species there represented are indigenous in Britain. Most of these species, it should be stated, are confined to the mountains of the north of England and Scotland.

and the winter is of ten months' duration. From the observations of Phipps, Parry, Scoresby, and several foreign explorers, the mean temperature of July, the warmest month, has been estimated at about 37° Fahr., and the highest point observed by Scoresby was 51° on the 29th of July, 1815. The mean temperature of the year is about 17° Fahr., and the mean temper. ature of the three winter months (Dec., Jan., and Feb.) is calculated at about zero of Fahrenheit. Of course the preceding figures must be treated as very rough approximations only.

reader to realize more fully the interest attached to the investigation of the plants and animals of a small isolated tract of land in so high a latitude — between 76° 33m. and 80° 50m. — especially when told that the highest point at which flowering plants have hitherto been seen is about 82°, or within 8° of the pole, in Smith's Sound. The geological formation of the group is of the earliest. So far as at present known it consists of granite and other crystalline rocks, and in the south traces of the Carboniferous and Permian To give a general idea of the whole strata have been discovered. The cliflora of the North Frigid Zone, we may mate of Spitzbergen is modified to a cerquote a few of Dr. Hooker's figures. By tain extent, like the whole of Western way of explanation it should be mentioned Europe, by oceanic streams flowing from that Dr. Hooker takes a very broad view the hot regions northwards. Nevertheof species, and many forms considered less, it is exceedingly rigorous, as may be as distinct species by some botanists here imagined from the fact that the sun never count as varieties. The more recent ad-rises more than 37° above the horizon, ditions to the flora of Spitzbergen would not materially alter these figures, because the same species were all, or nearly all, previously known to exist in Arctic Continental Europe or America. A few deductions would also probably have to be made. For instance, the Reed-mace, Typha, appears to have been included by mistake in the list of Arctic American plants. The total number of species of flowering plants with which alone we shall concern ourselves - given, is 762, of which about fifty are exclusively confined to the Arctic regions. A very large proportion of these are found in Scandi- From the foregoing brief sketch of the navia, south of the Arctic circle, and reap- climatal and other conditions of Spitzpear in the Alps; a few reach the Alpine bergen, a very limited number of flowerregions of the mountains of India and ing plants would be expected to thrive, Africa, and a few reappear in the extreme but at least one hundred species have south of the southern hemisphere. In a been observed-a comparatively rich less degree the same thing occurs from flora, when we consider that it is only in north to south on the American continent. | the most favourable situations that they Of these 762 species, 616 have been observed in Arctic Europe, 233 in Arctic Asia, 364 in Arctic West America, 379 in Arctic East America, and 207 in Arctic Greenland. From the proportions the respective figures for the five different areas bear to the total, it will be seen that nearly all the areas must have a majority of species in common, and that each area has very few species peculiar to itself. Before proceeding to give a sketch of the flora of Spitzbergen, there is one remarkable fact deserving of special notice. Of the 207 species found in Green-'

can exist at all. Nearly the whole of the vegetation consists of herbaceous perennials, about one-third being grasses, sedges, and rushes. The nearest approach to woody vegetation are the crow. berry (Empetrum nigrum), two species of willow (Salix reticulata and S. polaris), and Andromeda tetragona, an Erica ceous under-shrub, neither of which rises more than a few inches above the soil. Taking the families in their natural sequence, we have — 1. Ranunculaceæ: six species of ranunculus, and probably seven, a fragment in the Kew Herbarium,

collected by the Rev. Mr. Eaton, appear- in the complaints of geologists because ing to be R. acris. 2. Papaveraceæ: no geologist has been appointed to the Papaver nudicaule, a pretty dwarf yel- Arctic Expedition, whereas a botanist low-flowered poppy. 3. Cruciferæ about has been appointed. We may reproduce eighteen species, including Cardamine here the substance of an interesting note pratensis, ten species of Draba, and one on the most northerly species of flowering species of scurvy-grass, Cochlearia fene- plants known, which was communicated strata, perhaps the only esculent vegeta- to this journal (vol. viii. p. 487) by Dr. J. ble found in Spitzbergen, which has D. Hooker. The four following plants, proved most valuable to the crews of collected by Dr. Bessel in 82°. N. lat., the vessels that have touched there. probably on the east side of Smith's 4. Caryophylleæ: about a dozen species, Sound, represent the extreme northern including the following British-Silene limits of phanerogamic vegetation so far acaulis, Arenaria ciliata, A. peploides, as at present known: Draba alpina, and A. rubella. 5. Rosaceæ: four spe- Cerastium alpinum, Taraxacum denscies of Potentilla and Dryas octopetala. leonis var., and Poa alpina. With the 6. Saxifrageæ: Chrysosplenium alternifo- exception of the first, these are also inlium, Saxifraga oppositifolia, nivalis, digenous in Britain. We have one more cernua, caspitosa, hirculus, aizoides, and observation to make. Although there is four other species not found in Britain. what botanists term an Antarctic fora, 7. Compositæ: four species, including not a single flowering plant has been the dandelion. 8. Campanulaceæ: Cam- found within the Antarctic circle, and panula uniflora. 9. Ericaceæ: the little only a very limited number of the lower shrub mentioned above. 10. Gentiana- cryptogams.

ceæ: Gentiana tenella, discovered by the Rev. Mr. Eaton in 1872. II. Boraginaceæ: Mertensia maritima. 12. Polemoniaceæ: one species of Polemonium. 13. Scrophulariaceæ: Pedicularis hirsuta. 14. Empetraceæ: the Empetrum alluded to. 15. Polygoneæ: two British species, Polygonum viviparum, and Oxyria reniformis; and Kanigia islandica, which is of annual duration. 16. Salicineæ: the two species of willow given above. The remaining families(17) Juncaceæ, (18) Cyperaceæ, and (19) Gramineæ make up the rest, the latter being by far the most numerous, and embracing several British genera and species.

From The Spectator.

THE COST OF LIVING. THE author of the paper on "The Cost of Living" in the April number of the Cornhill is all wrong, and as if he were right he would be a most aggravating person, it may be worth while to tell irritated housekeepers why he is in the wrong. All his facts are, we doubt not, correct, but the instinct which so illogi cally or absurdly denies them all is, as we think, correct too. In feminine phraseIn a broad sense, the Arctic vegetationology, “He may prove all he likes, and it closely resembles the flora of the higher doesn't matter, because after all you know Alps, but there is less brilliancy and vari- it isn't so;" or in more masculine phrase, ety of colour in the flowers, yellow and he has omitted one essential datum in his white largely predominating. The plants calculation. His thesis as he puts it is assume a dense tufted habit of growth, quite conclusive. You are bound, he and increase mainly by lateral branches, says, when comparing the present with which take root and in their turn produce the past cost of living, to compare actual offsets. It is possible some or all of them prices, and not prices as affected by new ripen seeds in certain favourable seasons; wants. You have no right to say rent is but the almost total absence of annual higher because you seek a bigger house, plants, and the habit of growth of the or education costs more because you deperennials, seem to indicate that this sire a higher form of tuition, or rates are very seldom happens. An attentive more oppressive when you want so many study of the distribution of Arctic flower-new comforts paid for out of them. Your ing plants would lead us to believe that expense for lighting is not to be calcufew new species remain to be discov-lated by your bills for oil and gas, but by ered; and probably in the lower cryptogams also, few absolutely new forms will be found, though doubtless many known species occur that have not yet been collected. Therefore there is some justness

your bills as they would be if you required only the light with which your grandfather was content. You ought to compare the old article at its old price with the old article at its present price,

and then you will find that there has in ing" is as cheap as of old, but whether most departments of life been very little living in the same friendships is not very increase of cost at all. You can get the much more costly. The essayist is right bad old accommodation at the old price. when he says that there is no justice in You need not give any more for the apol- placing good drainage against bad, and ogy for education. You can stay at home saying good drainage is the dearer; but if you like, as your forefathers did, in he is only right so long as the drainage spite of all the cost of modern travel. It is optional, and not a matter of compulis most unfair to count your increased sion. The moment a purchase becomes wants as if they were increased priva- inevitable, and inevitable for some other tions, or as the writer puts it, "Perhaps reason than the mere development of a the oddest, one might rather say the new desire, the cost to the purchaser coolest assumption often made in dis- becomes a true addition to the cost of cussions upon this subject, is one which living; and there have been many such really amounts to a claim that all loss additions. This very one of sanitation arising from increase of cost is to be re- is such an addition. If it were open to a garded as a privation, and therefore a man to live as his grandfather lived, it ground for complaint, whereas all saving would be unfair to quote the plumber's arising from diminution of cost in other bill against the good old times, but in a directions may fairly be regarded as swal- city no such choice is left to the economlowed up by the greater demands' of ical housekeeper. He must pay his the present age. Beef and butter are plumber's bill, or be fined, or die of dearer, therefore here is a privation; but typhoid, and that bill is a direct increase when it is urged on the other hand that to his inevitable expenses. To take an travelling is vastly cheaper, the answer even better illustration, the cost of eduwill very likely be,' Oh! but people are cation as a necessity has been extravaobliged to travel so much more now than gantly increased. It is quite true that they used to do; every one does so now, our sons can get for £20 a year just as even those who formerly never thought good an education as our fathers got for of such a thing, and therefore we, like that amount, that is to say, as much of others, are forced to do the same.' Still positive knowledge or positive discipline more is the same answer resorted to in of the mind, but then of the direct object the case of every sort of social display. sought through that education they canIt need hardly be remarked that every not get so much. The middle-class man plea of this sort must be peremptorily of 1800 bought for his son with his £20 rejected." After rejecting every plea of a year a chance of success in life which that kind, it will be found that the cost of he now scarcely buys for six or seven living has scarcely increased at all, cer- times that sum. One end, at least, of tainly not more than ten per cent., if so education is to obtain an armour for the much. Meat has about doubled in price, battle of life; and if that armour is esand rent outside London is a trifle dearer, sential, and not to be obtained without say twenty per cent., but every other increased expense, there has been a necessary excepting service is percepti- direct addition to the cost of living. As bly cheaper. Taxes are less; the cost a matter of fact, we all know this has of travelling is less; books cost less; been the case. The essayist's exemplar, clothes are nearly the same, and servants' a professional man in a country town wages, though they seem to have altered, with £1,000 a year, would in 1800 have do not in a household of £1,000 per an- been liberal if, with a family of two sons num differ by £30 a year. Every word and two daughters, he had spent £100 a of this argument is as true as to all house- year—that is, a tithe of his income - on keepers over fifty it will be aggravating, education. He would now, unless very and the whole of it is all the same dis- exceptionally fortunate, have to spend tinctly false. The writer has forgotten £330— that is, a third of his receipts or omitted one great factor in his prob- to secure identically the same article, lem, namely, a definition of his idea of that is, an education for his children "necessaries." The question is not which should fit them for their position whether a pound of meat now costs more as well as the previous generation was or less than it did in 1800, but whether fitted for a third of the money. It is a meal costs more or less; not whether nonsense to say the education is better. "education" can be obtained as cheaply, So is the meat. But a man wants within but whether education of equivalent use a fraction as many ounces a day of good does not cost more; not whether "liv-meat as of indifferent, and education has

truth about furniture, however, we do get more of most things that we pay more for, and we could do with less, and the expense therefore is not a fair addition to the "cost of living;" but the butcher's bill is, and the principal's bill is, and so is nearly all we pay for sanitation. It is not open to us to choose to get acclimatized to sewage. We believe, if a fair account were struck, and no expense considered a new necessity, unless ordered by law, or commanded by doctors, or essential to success in life, or required merely to purchase articles always purchased before, it would be found that the loss in half a century on £1,000 a year would be £400 at least,- that men with defined incomes in 1875 were two-fifths

become as great a necessary as food, that is to say, without it the man or woman of the professional grade is weak for the ordinary work of life. Education is a necessity, not a luxury, and its increased cost, which is excessive, and will be greater yet, is a direct addition to the cost of living. So is the cost not of hiring servants, but of feeding servants when they are hired. The essayist says, and says rightly, that the wages of domestic servants are not much heavier, but there has been no decrease in the necessity for service or in servants' appetites for meat, and he himself admits that meat is twice as dear. The price of the joint is not the point in the comparison he is making, but the extent of the inevitable butcher's bill. It is quite fairless easy about money than men with the to strike out of the account the master's increased eating if it has increased, which it has not but it is not fair, if the servant is inevitable, to strike out his. That, on the conditions given, is a necessary, as completely a necessary for the argument as if the expense were required to keep the master alive.

same incomes in 1815. Be it remembered that the greatest of all the per contra items, the reduction in taxation, is considered in the estimate of prices. In 1815 an Englishman paid, we believe, 6s. 8d. in the pound of his income to the State, and now he pays only 2s. at the outside; but he paid it then, as now, mainly in higher prices, and his payment must not therefore be counted twice over. We are not at liberty in this argument to say tea is cheaper, and also to say the taxation on tea is less.

As to coals, light, travelling, dress, and many other things, we admit his argument fully. And we will even concede that the cost of furniture is less, though with a little shade of doubt. That furniture is cheaper than it was in our fathers' In stating our case, we have not only time is certain, yet it actually costs more, kept within the truth, but we have made and we do not feel certain that the extra a concession to the essayist which the expense is altogether voluntary. No great majority of those who keep house doubt we renew furniture more frequent- will declare to be unreasonable, and ly, and that is our own fault; but furni- about the reasonableness of which we ture also wears out more quickly, and have some doubts ourselves. We have that is not our own fault. Old house- surrendered the whole question of grade. keepers say it is worse made, but that is He says it is not fair to calculate the not quite the case, as we could buy fur- new advantages we purchase as addiniture, if we pleased, just as durable as tions to the cost of living, and economithe old manufacture, and very nearly of cally he is right, but his dictum ought to the same design. The truth is, we be- be subject to one "rider." One of the lieve, that furniture in London perishes things purchased by an expenditure of much more quickly than it did, from the £1,000 a year in 1815 was liberty of liv immense increase in the deposit of dirt, ing among a certain class of persons with which the housekeeper cannot control; good education, good manners, and the and that in the country it suffers from an freedom of life which comes of exemption unconscious change in ourselves, the from care. To secure that liberty cerloss of the power of considering its pres- tain expenses were incurred, and if they ervation part of the business of life. We are greatly increased, that is surely a dican't remember to draw down the blinds rect addition to the cost of living. Such lest the carpets fade, or do our deck- an increase has certainly taken place both pacing from time to time in fresh places, in the cost of locomotion and in the exlest the pattern wear unequally. That pense of dress. Locomotion for long change is involuntary, and produced by distances is amazingly cheaper, cheaper the enlargement in the horizon of men's by at least five hundred per cent., but and women's interests, and the loss which locomotion for short distances is percep it involves may be fairly set down to loss tibly dearer. The professional, whether from the cost of living. Whatever the lin London or the country, wants horses