constantly escaping in bubbles from the filthy deposit, and the surrounding atmosphere is sensibly tainted therewith, and undoubtedly rendered more or less unwholesome.

Dr. LANKESTER: There has been a good deal of difference of opinion expressed in the course of this discussion, but that difference was chiefly on one pointnamely, the extent of the influence of poison or contagious matter in inducing disease. I quite agree with Mr. Holland in his condemnation of the old quarantine laws, or regulations; because I believe them to be based on conditions that are quite absurd, and not on anything like a scientific knowledge of the nature of contagious diseases; and I think that in their operation they are vexatious. What I advocate is merely the adoption of those precautions which naturally follow on a knowledge of the fact that some diseases are contagious-are propa gated by contagion. I most distinctly deny that there has been anything like proof of the origin of small-pox anew, of the origin of typhus fever anew, or of the origin of cholera anew. The external agent which predisposes persons to take these diseases is simply the poison itself. If any man who is unvaccinated takes the small-pox, it cannot be said that the want of vaccination was the cause of the disease. What we say is, that the small-pox poison is the cause of the disease; the man may have gone through the whole world without taking smallpox, until he got the small-pox poison. The attack of small-pox could not have been in consequence merely of the state of his body at the time of his taking the disease.

CONTAMINATION OF AIR.

"To what extent can the Contamination of Air in Towns be diminished-and by what means?

A paper on this question by Dr. Augus Smith will be found at P 419.

DISCUSSION.

Dr. STEVENSON MACADAM, of Edinburgh; I believe the contamination of the air in towns is mainly due to four great causes:-first, respiration; second, the combustion of fuel; third, the decomposition and putrefaction of organic matter derivable from households; and, fourth, the discharge of refuse matters from public buildings and from public works. The means for the diminishing of the contamination of the air from these sources are-attention to the ventilation of houses and other buildings; complete combustion of fuel; the speedy removal of organic remains; and a prohibition as to the discharge or lodgment of refuse matters from public works in or near towns and cities. The atmosphere ought to be free from pollution and contamination. It ought to be thoroughly understood that the air which enters and passes into the lungs of an animal does not merely fill and empty the lungs in the manner of the working of a pair of bellows, but is called upon to perform important duties in the animal frame, and is changed thereby. The ordinary healthy air of the atmosphere contains only one part in 2,500 of carbonic acid, whilst the expired air contains 5 per cent. of carbonic acid, or one in 20. Moreover, much water and organic effluvia accompany the air in its passage from the lungs. The water thus exhaled amounts to from seven to 12 ounces daily, and in confined apartments or crowded halls this water settles on the walls and windows, and when removed and examined is found to be offensive. Attention to ventilation is of vital moment, and the importance of the subject is generally under-estimated. The air food is more important than the solid food, because the air is required in mouthfuls every minute, whilst the solid or liquid food is only taken at intervals. The air is little thought of, because we do not pay for it, do not see it on our plates, and we do not much handle or taste it. But, undoubtedly, the allowance of air food which is served out in the rooms we inhabit should be ample. In a small apart.

ment, unprovided with means of ventilation, a man is starved of air food, and at best only receives a stinted supply, of inferior quality. The employment of disinfectants for the purification of the atmosphere may be tolerated under peculiar circumstances, but they do not affect a cure or properly purify the air. The only effectual method of removing the contaminated air is by promoting ventilation, which will bring the foul air into contact with fresh air containing ozone. Corporations can do little to enforce ventilation in private houses, but they ought to see that effective means are taken to ventilate public schools and buildings, lodging-houses, and barracks; and, above all, the children in our schools ought to be taught that the air expired by animals is hurtful and poisonous. Again, where imperfect combustion is carried on, and smoke or fine carbonaceous particles are evolved, the impurity of the air must, more or less, affect the health. It is a question how far the smoke from public works can be consumed, but it is reasonable to suppose that something could be done to arrest much of the smoke discharged from the public works of such towns as Sheffield. The contamination of the air by the decomposition and putrefaction of organic substances, derivable from households, is mainly due to imperfect drainage. Generally the drainage system is carried out more or less efficiently in our important towns and cities, but in some places there is a want of main sewers. There is an instance of bad drainage in the town of Sheffield. The Sheaf and the Don are practically open main sewers of a most revolting and disgusting aspect, and the sanitary state of such is most unsatisfactory. The addition of lime to the deposits in the bed of the streams does not do much good, and the contraction of the bed of the streams would also be merely partial in removing the nuisance. Main-drainage pipes must be arranged to carry the sewage away from inhabited places. Coast towns can discharge their sewage into the sea, whilst inland towns must have recourse to irrigation. The irrigating system is the least of two evils, as it is much better, in a healthy point of view, to spread the sewage over tracts of land than to discharge it direct into a river. In regard to the discharge of refuse matters from public buildings and works, as from the shambles of towns, such should not be allowed to pass directly into a river, as is the practice in Sheffield. At a time like the present, when rinderpest prevails amongst the cattle in many parts, it is matter for serious consideration how far it may be possible for the refuse matters from diseased animals passing into a stream to communicate the disease to the lower districts. In conclusion, I may state that the whole question of better air resolves itself into one of more air in our houses, and more water to remove noxious matters into drains and sewers. It behoves corporations to see that the air is being constantly circulated, and that the drainage of a town is kept circulating, and to adopt means for the arrestment of the deposit of foul matters in and near towns and other inhabited places. The means of diminishing the contamination of the air in towns is undoubtedly within the reach of corporations, and the question of convenience or amount of rates should not be allowed to interfere with efforts to purify the air and so to decrease the mortality of a district.

Mr. P. H. HOLLAND, after dwelling on disease as the great cause of poverty, went on to say: Even those that live in healthy places and receive the greatest incomes may be very poor, if they are unhealthy. You find workmen who earn 40s. or 50s. a week, living much more miserably than clerks who earn only £80 a year. Why is that? Because the workman is foolish enough to take a cheap house; but in the end he finds it to be one of the dearest in the town. For the sake of 6d. or a 1s. a week he exposes himself and his family to disease, when if he had sense enough to cut off his supply of beer, he would be far more healthy and wealthy than he is under his present habits. I am not a teetotaller by any means; but if ever I feel a tendency to drink more than is good for me, it is after I have been in those nasty places of poverty and of wretchedness; and I believe the very thing that makes me thirst for a stimulant is breathing that impure air. Now, if I have felt that, after being so short a time in a foul atmosphere, how much more must those feel the same desire who live in it continually. I say if we could get them to live in better houses, they would have better health.

Dr. BINGLEY said: I concur in the opinion that the immediate removal of all

matter capable of evolving noxious gases, would be one great step towards preserving the public health, and preventing the contamination of the air in towns. To drain into the rivers or streams, as is the practice in Sheffield, is, in my opinion, a proceeding that is quite preposterous. A man may go into a stackyard with a brand of fire, because, while he is there to watch it, he can keep it, if he wish, entirely under his control. But let it once get hold of the stacks, and you may as well try to extinguish it with a bucket of water, as endeavour by putting a sprinkling of lime on the banks of a river or a stream, to eradicate disease which has been generated by poisonous gases evolved from that stream and conveyed by the atmosphere.

Professor GAMGEE contributed a paper on "The Cattle Plague" which, being of immediate interest, was published in the first number of the Journal of Social Science p. 67.

The Rev. W. H. CHANNING read a paper on "The United States Sanitary Commission." After giving an account of the labours of the commission similar to that already given in our Transactions for 1864, p. 546, he stated that-" In addition to actually caring for the soldiers when sick or wounded, the commission had established homes and refuges, "rests," as they were called, for men who for various causes were temporarily separated from their ranks. The result of their operations was that the commission, in its homes, its "rests," and its hospitals, had cared for 839,000 men. In conclusion, he said that the total contributions from the states, counties, and towns summed up to the almost incredible total of 212 millions of dollars.

The Rev. W. W. MALET read a paper describing the operations of the Newport Market Refuge, in London, and of the St. Joseph's Refuge Home, at Lisson Grove.

Mr. NOURSE Contributed a paper on that portion of infant mortality which results from criminal action or neglect. He stated that infanticide, criminal abortion, and neglect, were fearfully prevalent, and were a terrible disgrace to our civilisation. He suggested the removal of the facilities for practising midwifery, by an Act of Parliament requiring registration of midwives; alterations in the law regulating the registration of deaths, and the prohibiting or limiting of the sale of certain drugs well known to be only used to procure abortion.

Mrs. BAINES also contributed a paper suggesting that institutions should be formed under State aid for the reception of women and children, both as lying-in hospitals and nurseries.

475

ECONOMY AND TRADE.

Report of the Standing Committee of the Department.

INCE our last Annual Meeting the following Acts of Parliament, which refer to the special objects of this Committee, have been passed.

1. The Union Chargeability Act, 1865.-The principal provision of this Act is, that all the cost of the relief of the poor in any union, and other expenses incurred by the guardians of such union, shall be charged on the common fund thereof. The consequences involved in this provision, it is unnecessary for the Committee on the present occasion to point out. The question as to how far these are likely to be favourable to the welfare of the working classes, and the general interests of the community, has at former meetings been discussed in this Department, and the preponderance of opinion has certainly been in favour of the principle of the measure, which has now become law.

2. The Acts to Amend the Law of Partnership.-This Act introduces the principle of limited liability into private partnerships. That this will have important effects cannot be doubted, since it is obvious that it will not only afford to traders new facilities for obtaining capital, and to persons possessed of capital new means of employing it profitably, but will strongly tend to remove the broad line of demarcation which exists in this country between employers and the employed, by allowing the latter, without legal risk to either party, to be paid in part by a share in the profits of their employers. The effect of the Act in this direction will form an important consideration in discussing, at the present meeting, the question of co-operation as applied to production.

Among the bills introduced into parliament, on subjects falling within the scope of this Department, may be mentioned that of Lord St. Leonards, to establish equitable councils of conciliation to adjust differences between masters and operatives. As this subject is to form one of the questions for discussion at the present meeting, the Committee forbear making any observations on the bill now mentioned.

The issuing of a Royal Commission to inquire into the charges made for the conveyance of passengers and goods on the railways of Great Britain and Ireland, and the practicability of reducing such charges with a due regard to safety, punctuality, and expedition,

was viewed with much satisfaction by this Committee. To whatever results the inquiries of the Commission may lead, there are various circumstances which render it desirable that a thorough investigation into our railway system should now take place. The subject was brought before this Department in London, by our Chairman, Mr. Chadwick, shortly before the issuing of the Royal Commission, in an address in which various important facts were stated, and many valuable views suggested. The great interest which the subject has excited has induced the Committee to select it as one of the questions for discussion at the present meeting.

The Committee have also to mention that they prepared a Report, which was read at a meeting of the Department during last May, on At that the condition of the journeymen bakers in London.

meeting there was a large attendance both of master bakers and of the class whose condition formed the subject of inquiry. An interesting discussion took place, and many important facts were stated by different speakers connected with the trade.

AUTHORITATIVE ARBITRATION.

What are the best means of establishing a system of Authoritative Arbitration between Employers and Employed in cases of Strike and Locks-out. By JOHN WILSON.

Most unionists believe that the moral and social well-being of the industrial population depends on efficient organisation. It is clearly perceived that some trades, by close combinations, maintain a high rate of wages; and, because this is done on a limited scale, the unionists believe that it can be accomplished universally. But if we investigate the causes of success, it is readily perceived that unions only succeed by restricting their numbers. No economist has shown this more forcibly than John Stuart Mill. Speaking of the remedies for low wages, he says:-"Every successful combination to keep up wages, owes its success to contrivances for restricting the number of competitors. All skilled trades are anxious to keep down their own numbers, and may impose, as a condition, upon employers that they shall not take more than a prescribed number of apprentices." This is borne out by nearly all trade rules, and writers in favour of trades' unions point to this as the remedy for low wages. In "The Rights of Labour," page 11, the author says, "The vital interests of labour of every kind are involved in the question : Are the numbers of apprentices greater than the requirements of the trade? In the adjustment of this question, lies the secret of prosperity." On the same page the writer says, "The numbers out of employment in almost