mind contemplates, and is placed against, a single other particular existence, the mind is, itself, in the category of gos, or opposed to what. But when it contemplates two or more particular existences, in relation to each other, it, then, is not only in the category of relation itself, but also is contemplating separateness and variety. Aristotle, in writing of this category, places, in it, some things which belong to subsequent categories, such as proportion, and relative position. CHAPTER III. The Category of was, how,-Apollo. THE category of was, how, or manner, is continuous particular existence. For number is without character in itself; nor can there be character, unless in the extension of unity. Manner, therefore, is as unity extended into other circumstances, or as the radiation of a line from particular existence. Therefore, ws, how, or through what, may be called the category of Apollo, as shooting forth lines of light. The continuity of line is capable of being extended to infinitude, and turned in every possible course through the differences of mode; but still, so long as it remains continuously extended, it has not absolute freedom, like that of colour or number. But line, by being broken into parts, attains to a perfect and infinite freedom, and becomes capable of being dispersed in any manner, and of receiving variety in separate character. To this category belongs also musical tone, as expressing continued duration. A ray is the first type of music, and refers to the fixed position from whence it set out, and measures the time which has been between. But tone is vibration in extended unity, and gives the feeling of mode or character; for vibration is change of form in that part which vibrates. Modality, or through what, may be called the first pattern of inferential reasoning. Modality is the extension of single particular existence, and inferential reasoning is the carrying of the same thing into different circumstances. But, inferring is a voluntary exertion of the mind's active power, by which it takes some notion, and carries it into what circumstances it chooses, to apply it to them, and to shew its relation to them. And therefore, the act of reasoning by inference must be in other categories; for, modality is only the exemplar, according to which, the active exertion should be made. CHAPTER IV. The Category of ov, where,-Diana. THE category of ou, where, is where in relation to particular existence; as, where on the face of the earth; for where is not in an unreflected line till some other particular existence is applied to it. This category, therefore, is as the point, at which a continuous ray is reflected. The first form of surface is from line reflected into an angle, which gives the form of surface in the angle, and between the parts of the line. The extension of plane form must, always, begin within the curve or arc of a continuous line, and may be extended, from thence, to infinitude, as the parts of the line diverge: and, therefore, the crescent is the sign of surface and reflexion. Where is also the category of elasticity, or the turning back of the continuous extension of particular being, on meeting with other particu lar being. This may be called the category of Diana, the huntress, who moved on the face of the earth. bound is from surface not penetrated; and the Greek name, Artemis, siguified whole, or unbroken into by any thing external. Diana was called Triformis, because surface is above, and beneath, and horizontally. To the same category belongs also sight, which is by rays reflected from the face of objects seen; and rays when coming unreflected, are reflected on meeting with that which sees. Therefore, sight and surface, and local position, in the particular, belong to this category. And, as reflection is always in the contrary order to that which is reflected, it is most likely that mimicry, or the repetition of opposite likeness, belongs also to the category of Diana; for it is certain that mimicry is closely connected with elasticity. CHAPTER V. Ke The Category of worì, when,-Vulcan. THE category of wri, when, is as the end of continuous extension; for, when is the end of the time which has gone before. The category of Diana, or rebound, does not imply terminated continuity, but is only change of course; and the extension of surface has not necessarily any limit, till stopped by a boundary, which incloses it altogether, and makes it finite. Therefore, Ti, when, is the category of Vulcan, or of continuous extension stopped in its course. Vulcan was reputed to preside over the termination of figure, which is limitation between what is within, and what is beyond. CHAPTER VI. The Category of o, how much,— Neptune. THE category of ποσόν, how much, relates only to that which is within limits; for there can be no proportions of quantities, till there is limitation; and proportion, also, implies the separateness of the quantities which are compared. To this category belongs music, as the proportion of one tone to another; as, for example, the proportion of the fifth to the key note, which is three quantities against two. Musical tone was formerly spoken of in the category of Apollo, as the continuous motion, or vibration of particular existence. But the proportions of tone belong to the category of Neptune; since, in reference to proportion, the tones must be considered as divided into finite parts, susceptible of quantity. Harmony is two or more tones heard in the same time, and measuring each other. Quantity, therefore, is the relation of that which is within limits to some ternally to form, this is understanding, or the taking hold of the ideal; from whence comes also the expansion of natural being, and the love of the infinitude, which is beyond. Therefore, to the category of Neptune belongs intellect, not as an internal likeness of essence to the qualities of the ideal, but, rather, as a love of the certainty of and permanence of form, as felt, in contrast to the unstable nature of created being. The original fluctuation and indefiniteness of natural being was well understood by many of the ancient philosophers. This was what Thales meant, when he asserted that the origin of all things was from water. And the following are also found among the apophthegms of Thales, which are recorded by Diogenes Laertius. Κάλλισον κόσμος, ποίημα γὰρ θεοῦ. other existence, which is also within limits, and capable of being called so much, as opposite. The beginning of the categories is from poor, or the likeness of particular existence to idea. The category of Neptune, which comes from being within termination, is opposite; and, in it, is first found the nature of created being, or the original, dark, unstable, and uncertain waters of chaos; which (although existing within limits) were internally unlike idea. The characteristic of natural being is its indefiniteness. But this unstable nature, although so dissimilar to idea, is with it in place; and, when natural being applies itself in μέγις τον τόπος, ἅπαντα γὰρ κωρει. σοφώτατον κρίνας ἀνευρίσκει γὰρ πάντα. In modern times, when Spinosa wrote on substantive existence, he endeavoured to confound the differences of internal feeling, by saying, that they were all attributes or affections of one subject, and that it is impossible that there can be any essential difference of being, for that all substance, as capable of being conceived by itself, must be infinite. But it cannot be conceived separate from the place in which it exists. Nevertheless, natural being, as existing within limits, has a sort of counterpart of infinitude in its internal indefiniteness, which is like the darkness in the unfathomed abysses of the sea. When this is felt, individuality of being is forgotten, and appears to be solved into the common nature of original substance. But intellect is the application of this fluctuating nature to form, whence comes founded on the permanence of the also the sentiment of hope, which is ideal. To the category of Neptune, therefore, belongs, not only the proportion of separate quantities considered aof natural being, as contained within gainst each other, but also the origin limits, but unlike form. Aristotle, in treating of this category, considers it only in relation to quantity and proportion. CHAPTER VII. The Category of ivria, substance,- SUBSTANCE, or lucía, is the category of natural being, formed into solid parts, and made stedfast, so as to remain individual. This category, which might be called arouov, or individuality, has the same relation to that of Nep 1 the interior of individual being. The name of Mars signified also the male. CHAPTER IX. Venus. tune, as the earth has to the flowing The Category of xàoxsw, to suffer,— and changeable sea. Therefore, substance may be called the category of Vesta, who also presided over the hearth, as the most fixed and central part of a house. As substance is ca pable of remaining fixed and unaltered, it is susceptible of fidelity, and of memory, as letters marked upon a rock. From thence was the name of St Peter, who represented the faithfulness of the heart. For the same reason, the nine Muses, daughters of Memory, were said by Hesiod to have been begotten by Jupiter, when with Mnemosyne, in a rock, called that of Saturn. The strongest feeling of duration is in the heart, which remains fixed, while the Muses, or measures, dance round Apollo, and join with him in celebrating the progress and beauty of Time. But the fixed memory of past impressions is contrasted with intellect, which is a spreading like the waves of the sea, and an ever renewed and present application to the extended forms of the ideal. CHAPTER VIII. The Category of woev, to do,-Mars. ACTION is the repelling of other substances from the same place. The category of wov, to do, is that of Mars, and is next in order, after that of Vesta, or solidity. Force and compulsion come from the gross nature of substances, which are incapable of being in the same place. The ancients calied the reaction of bodies aváynn, or necessity, which merely signified their incapability of going into the same place. This is the kind of action, among fixed and unliving substances, which only receive motion from without. But the internal generation of motion seems to result. also from the parts of continuous being refusing to go into the same place; and, therefore, impelling each other, like the vertebræ in the spine of an animal, as in the back of a crocodile or alligator. For the spine is the part which expresses the internal origin of power; but the upper part of the arm, in the human form, expresses the throwing out of active power, from To suffer is to be changed, as to condition, by the power of something external; and this category is contrary to that of OLELY, to do. Instead of being as the internal power of repelling other substances from a place, it is like being drawn towards the place where they are. This is the origin of passive emotion, and love, and may be called the category of Venus. Farther, that of Mars is as the coming forth of active power from within the limits of individual being; but this is as the yielding of limitation, and as quantity broken into. The putting together of equal and unbroken quantities produces proportion; but proportion is incapable of passing through the intermediate grades of increase and diminution. Therefore the origin of beauty is from the breaking of quantity, which is required to be freed from proportion, before there can be unequal increase and diminution. The birth of Venus is said to have been from among the foam of the sea, and her first appearance on the sea snore, newly escaped from the dominion of Neptune, or proportion; and beauty is the kind of freedom which may exist in the lineaments of finite form, delivered from straightness and equality. The relation of curves to the category of Venus must here be spoken of. A circle is not in the category of beauty; for the circumference bends always at the same rate, and returns into itself. A circle therefore is the curve of unity, or Jupiter. But when a curve bends at an increasing rate, it becomes a volute rolling inwards, which is the curve of Venus or passive affection. The curve, which rolls inwards, expresses compression, or the approach of number or separateness to unity, and therefore may be called the curve of Venus, or attraction. But the curve which, setting out from a certain point, bends at a diminishing rate, escapes from the circle, and rolls outwards, taking always more space. This is the curve of Ceres, or growing. Its crossing the curve of Venus gives the first idea of mixture, or difference of quality. CHAPTER X. the second place, he mentions, as qua lities, active powers and abilities, as strength for boxing and running, or that health which is ability for endu The Category of rour, of what quality, ring fatigue. In the third place, he Ceres. THIS comes after the category of sáry, to suffer; since, until affected by external causes, no individual existence differs internally from itself, as to substance. From considering this in relation to the other categories, it would appear that, from internal difference of substance in individual being, begins the spreading out of difference of parts; but this is the most difficult of all things to be understood, The seed of a plant is like fixed substance, affected from without, and having its limits broken, so as to become capable of drawing nourishment from the elements beyond. But, whatever may be thought of this, it is certain that, of what quality, must be the mentions qualities passively felt, as affecting that which feels them, as sweetness, or bitterness, or sourness, or hotness, or coldness, or whiteness, or blackness. The definition of qualities passively felt, comes nearest to that which is properly the category of Ceres; although the other kinds of quality, also participate in it. But, in the fourth place, he mentions, as another kind of quality, exñμá naι poęph, scheme and form, as also straightness or curvature. These belong properly to the category of Apollo, or modality, and go to make the differences of external character and kind, which belong not to the category of aờ, or internal substantive quality. CHAPTER XI. Minerva. category of Ceres; for, all growing, in The Category of xdal, to be situated,— individual being, is from the reception of nourishment from without, and from feeling the quality of substance, so as to receive or exclude it, according to its quality. Each plant selects, and, from thence, forms an internal flavour peculiar to itself. For instance, some herbs are found to grow, as receptacles for poisons; while the rose takes what is fit for its perfume, and the healing plants of the earth seem to catch only from the elements, the sacred myrrh and incense that breathes through the universe, and preserves from corruption. Whatever is nourishing, is so from the quality of its substance; and therefore, this may justly be called the category of Ceres, who presided over the fruits of the earth. This is also the category of mingling, in so far as relates to the quality of mingling as the differences of colour, which are exemplified not only in flowers, but also in fruits. Aristotle, in writing of wav, or of what quality, divides the category into four different parts, which are not all mere differences of quality, in the sense attributed to Ceres. But in the discriminations he makes, are just and true in themselves. He mentions first, as qualities, permanent habits and dispositions, as understanding or virtue, and temporary situations or conditions, as health or sickness, heat or cold. In THE category of xedai, to be situated, is the arrangement of parts in relation to each other; as the arrangement of windows or pillars in a house, or the relative position of threads in a web. But, in this category, the parts, which constitute a whole, must be considered as originally moveable in relation to each other. The most perfect exemplification of it is change of attitude, in the human figure, and this may, therefore, be called the category of Minerva, the shield-bearer, capable of altering her position. She is said, by the ancient poets, to have sprung from the head of Jupiter, completely armed, which may signify having all the parts of the human figure in their order for action, motion, and feeling. As this category of relative position is the principal one in regard to inference, Minerva represented that which is in the head, namely, the power of reason and arrangement. Among the other deities, she was as St John among the apostles. To this category also belongs accusation, and question as to situation, and determining in what predicament any particular being is. But accusation may be true or false. Among the ancient inhabitants of Athens, the city of Minerva, there were found more liars and false-accu sers, in proportion, than among the other nations. The English word to lie, seems to have some reference to situation; for lying is giving a false representation of the position of particular being; but true report is that which represents the real position of circumstances. To this category, which comprehends situation, and attitude or gesture, may be referred the first notion of the drama, which should not be considered as a poetical fiction, but rather as a voluntary shewing of the situations or attitudes, in which human nature may be placed. In the ancient drama, the invention of new fables was not sought after, but rather avoided, and the beauty of the drama was made to depend on arrangement, fine composition, and the shewing of situations. The chief question was always, "In what circumstances is the hero now placed?" Prometheus was seen bound to the rock, and suffering for having conferred forbidden gifts on mankind. And Edipus was seen gradually accused by circumstances, and at last found in the predicament of horrible crimes; and the ancient drama was accompanied by music, which is also an art of arrangement, and closely connected with gestures. The feeling of tendency is from the laying out of parts in a certain order or disposition, stretching more towards this or that. It therefore belongs to the category of arrangement. Aristotle, in speaking of na, to be situated, only gives instances of it, as to be sitting or standing. The whole of the categories may be arranged into four parts, as follows:The categories of Jupiter, Juno, and Venus, or position, separateness, and passive affection, relate to sentiment felt towards the particular. The categories of Apollo, Diana, and Vulcan, relate to touch. Sensation by touch comes from resisting or stopping, and belongs to the category of when, or Vulcan. Sensation by touch is felt on surface, and belongs to the category of where, or Diana. And sensation by touch is felt in a form, as colour, bounded by straight lines or crooked, and touch belongs to the category of how, or Apollo. The categories of Mars, Minerva, and Mercury, relate to reasoning. To reason is a voluntary exertion of the mind's power, and therefore belongs to the category of rov, to do. To infer is to carry something into other circumstances, and belongs to arrange ment, or the category of Minerva. In reasoning the mind must comprehend and keep the notion which is inferred, and therefore reasoning belongs to the category of ixew to have, or Mercury. The categories of Neptune, Vesta, and Ceres, relate to internal feeling, or intellect, stedfastness, and the feeling of quality, in relation to the ideal. CHAPTER XII. The Category of xw,to have,- THE category of xew, to have, is to contain, or hold the particular within other limits besides its own, as money in a purse. The figure of the money is its own limit, and belongs to the category of Vulcan, but the purse is another limitation, including the first. Comprehension may be called the category of Mercury, who was reported to preside over merchandize, and the desire to possess. The same Arcadian region which contained Cyllene, the birth-place of Mercury, was also the favourite resort of the goat-footed Pan. The form of the reeds, in Pan's musical instrument, expresses comprehension; for, the air blown into them cannot escape through, but, being confined on all sides, fills them, and returns again in sounds. But the most perfect exemplification of the category of Mercury, is a thief in prison. For attempting to have what is not his, a house, which is not his, has him. [In illustration of the above, we give the following extract from Mr Howison's new publication, of an Essay on the Sentiments, &c., with the Thesis of the Twelve Deities, and Europe's Likeness. We might have quoted other parts from the same volume, but have chosen the following, as having reference to the subject of the preceding Essay :C. N.] |