pernicious to the mind; "The effects of divisions (in a state) are pernicious to the last degree, not only with regard to those advantages which they give the common enemy; but to those private evils which they produce in the heart of almost every particular person.'-ADDISON.

TO CONSUME, DESTROY, WASTE. Consume, in French consumer, Latin consumo, compounded of con and sumo, signifies to take away altogether; destroy, in Latin destruo, compounded of de privative and struo to build, signifies to undo or scatter that whica has been raised; waste, from the adjective waste or desert, signifies to make waste or naked. The idea of bringing that to nothing which has been something is common to all these terms.

What is consumed is lost for any future purpose; what is destroyed is rendered unfit for any purpose whatever: consume may therefore be to destroy as the means to the end; things are often destroyed by being consumed: when food is consumed it serves the intended purpose; but when it is destroyed it serves no purpose, and is likewise unfit for any.

O'er the drear spot see desolation spread,
And the dismantled walls in ruin lie.--MOORE.
We, for myself I speak, and all the name
Of Grecians who to Troy's destruction came,
Not one but suffered and too dearly bought
The prize of honour which in arms he sought.
DRYDEN

TO BEREAVE, DEPRIVE, STRIP. Bereave, in Saxon bereafian, German berduben, &c is compounded of be and reave or rob, Saxon reafian, German rauben, Low German roofen, &c. Latin rapina and rapio to catch or seize, signifying to take away contrary to one's wishes; deprive, compounded of de and prive, French priver, Latin privo, from privus private, signifies to make that one's own which was another's; strip is in German streifen, Low German streipen, stroepen, Swedish strofea, probably changed from the Latin surripio to snatch by stealth.

To bereave expresses more than deprive, but less than strip, which in this sense is figurative, and denotes a total bereavement; one is bereaved of children,

When iron is consumed by rust, or the body by dis-deprived of pleasures, and stripped of property: we ease, or a house by the flames, the things in these cases are literally destroyed by consumption: on the other band, when life or health is taken away, and when things are either worn or torn so as to be useless, they are destroyed;

Let not a fierce unruly joy

The settled quiet of the mind destroy.-ADDISON.
In the figurative signification consume is synonymous
with waste the former implies a reducing to nothing;
the latter conveys also the idea of misuse: to waste is
to consume uselessly; much time is consumed in com-
plaining, which might be employed in remedying the
evils complained of; Mr. Boyle, speaking of a certain
mineral, tells us that a man may consume his whole
life in the study, without arriving at the knowledge of
its qualities.'-ADDISON. Idlers waste their time be-
cause they do not properly estimate its value: those
who consume their strength and their resources in fruit-
less endeavours to effect what is impracticable, are
unfitted for doing what might be beneficial to them-
selves: it is an idle waste of one's powers to employ
them in building up new systems, and making men dis-
satisfied with those already established;

For this I mourn, till grief or dire disease,
Shall waste the form whose crime it was to please.
РОРК.

TO DEMOLISH. RAZE, DISMANTLE,
DESTROY.

The throwing down what has been built up is the common idea included in all these terms.

Demolish, from the Latin demolior, and moles a mass, signifies to decompound what has been in a mass; raze like erase (v. To blot out) signifies the making smooth or even with the ground; dismantle, in French demanteler, signifies to deprive of the mantle or guard; destroy, from the Latin destruo, compounded of the privative de and struo to build, signifies properly to pull down.

are bereaved of that on which we set most value; the act of bereaving does violence to our inclination: we are deprived of the ordinary comforts and conve niences of life; they cease to be ours: we are stripped of the things which we most want; we are thereby rendered as it were naked. Deprivations are prepara tory to bereavements; if we cannot bear the one pa tiently, we may expect to sink under the other; com mon prudence should teach us to look with unconcern on our deprivations: Christian faith should enable us to consider every bereavement as a step to perfection; that when stripped of all worldly goods we may be invested with those more exalted and lasting honours which await the faithful disciple of Christ.

We are bereaved of our dearest hopes and enjoyments by the dispensations of Providence;

O first-created Being, and thou great Word,
Let there be light, and light was over all;
Why am I thus bereav'd thy prime decree?

MILTON.

Casualties deprive us of many little advantages of
gratifications which fall in our way;

Too daring bard! whose unsuccessful pride
Th' immortal muses in their art defied;
Th' avenging muses of the light of day
Depriv'd his eyes, and snatch'd his voice away.
РОРЕ.

Men are active in stripping each other of their jus
rights and privileges; From the uncertainty of life,
moralists have endeavoured to sink the estimation of
its pleasures, and if they could not strip the seductions
of vice of their present enjoyment, at least to load
them with the fear of their end.'-MACKENZIE.

DEPREDATION, ROBBERY.

Depredation, in Latin deprædatio, from præda a prey, signifies the act of spoiling or laying waste, as well as taking away; robbery, on the other hand, sig A fabrick is demolished by scattering all its compo-nifies simply the removal or taking away from another nent parts; it is mostly an unlicensed act of caprice; by violence. Every depredation, therefore, includes a it is razed by way of punishment, that it may be left robbery, but not vice versa. A depredation is always as a monument of publick vengeance; a fortress is dis- attended with mischief to some one, though not always mantled from motives of prudence, in order to render with advantage to the depredator; but the robber it defenceless; places are destroyed by various means always calculates on getting something for himself. and from various motives, that they may not exist any Depredations are often committed for the indulgence longer. of private animosity; robbery is always committed from a thirst for gain.

Individuals may demolish; justice causes a razure; a general orders towers to be dismantled and fortifications to be destroyed;

From the demolish'd tow'rs the Trojans throw
Huge heaps of stones, that falling crush the foe.
DRYDEN.
Great Diomede has compass'd round with walls
The city which Argyripa he calls,

From his own Argos nam'd; we touch'd with joy
The royal hand that raz'd unhappy Troy.-DRYDEN.
* Vide Abbe Girard: "Demolir, raser, demanteler,

detruire."

Depredation is either the publick act of a community, or the private act of individuals; robbery mostly the private act of individuals. Depredations are comimitted wherever the occasion offers; in open or covert places: robberies are committed either on the persons or houses of individuals. In former times neighbour ing states used to commit frequent depredations on each other, even when not in a state of open hostility; robberies were, however, then less frequent than at present; As the delay of making war may sometimes be detrimental to individuals, who have suffered by depredations from foreign potentates, our laws have

in some respects, armed the subject with powers to | inpel the prerogative, by directing the ministers to issue letters of marque.'-BLACKSTONE. From all this, what is my inference? That this new system of robbery in France cannot be rendered safe by any art.' -BURKE

Depredation is used in the proper and bad sense, for animals as well as for men; robbery may be employed figuratively and in the indifferent sense. Birds are great depredators in the cornfields; bees may be said to plunder or rob the flowers of their sweets.

TO DEPRIVE, DEBAR, ABRIDGE. Deprive (v. To bereave) conveys the idea of either taking away that which one has, or withholding that which one may have; debar, from de and bar, signifying to prevent by means of a bar, conveys the idea only of withholding; abridge (v. To abridge) conveys that also of taking away. Depriving is a coercive measure; debar and abridge are merely acts of autho.rity. We are deprived of that which is of the first necessity; we are debarred of privileges, enjoyments, opportunities, &c.; we are abridged of comforts, pleasures, conveniences, &c. Criminals are deprived of their liberty; their friends are in extraordinary cases debarred the privilege of seeing them; thus men are often abridged of their comforts in consequence of their own faults.

Deprivation and debarring sometimes arise from things as well as persons; abridging is always the voluntary act of conscious agents. Misfortunes sometimes deprive a person of the means of living; the poor are often debarred, by their poverty, of the opportunity to learn their duty; it may sometimes be necessary to abridge young people of their pleasures when they do not know how to make a good use of them. Religion teaches men to be resigned under the severest deprivations; it is painful to be debarred the Society of those we love, or to abridge others of any advantage which they have been in the habit of enjoying.

When used as reflective verbs they preserve the same analogy in their signification. An extravagant person deprives himself of the power of doing good; Of what small moment to your real happiness are inany of those injuries which draw forth your resentment? Can they deprive you of peace of conscience, of the satisfaction of having acted a right part?BLAIR. A person may debar himself of any pleasure from particular motives of prudence; Active and masculine spirits, in the vigour of youth, neither can nor ought to remain at rest. If they debar themselves from aiming at a noble object, their desires will move downward.-HUGHES. A miser abridges himself of every enjoyment in order to gratify his ruling passion; The personal liberty of individuals in this kingdom cannot ever be abridged at the mere discretion of the magistrate.'-BLACKSTONE.

CAPTURE, SEIZURE, PRIZE. Capture, in French capture, Latin captura, from captus, participle of capio to take, signifies either the act of taking, or the thing taken, but mostly the former: seizure, from sezze, in French saisir, signifies only the act of seizing; prize, in French prise, from pris, participle of prendre to take, signifies only the thing taken.

A

Capture and seizure differ in the mode: a capture is made by force of arms; a seizure by direct and personal violence. The capture of a town or an island requires an army; the seizure of property is effected by the exertions of an individual. A seizure always requires some force, which a capture does not. capture may be made on an unresisting object; it is merely the taking into possession: a seizure supposes nich eagerness for possession on the one hand, and reluctance to yield on the other. Merchant vessels are captured which are not in a state to make resistance; contraband goods are seized by the police officers.

A capture has always something legitimate in it; it is a publick measure flowing from authority, or in the course of lawful warfare; The late Mr. Robert Wood, in his essay on the original genius and writings of Homer, inclines to think the Iliad and Odyssey were

finished about half a century after the capture of Troy. -CUMBERLAND. A seizure is a private measure, fre quently as unlawful and unjust as it is violent; it depends on the will of the individual; Many of the dangers imputed of old to exorbitant wealth are now at an end. The rich are neither waylaid by robbers, nor watched by informers; there is nothing to he dreaded from proscriptions or seizures.'-JOHNSON, A capture is general, it respects the act of taking: a prize is particular, it regards the object taken, and its value to the captor: many captures are made by sea which never become prizes; Sensible of their own force, and allured by the prospect of so rich a prize, the northern barbarians, in the reign of Arcadius and Honorius, assailed at once all the frontiers of the Roman empire.'-HUME.

BOOTY, SPOIL, PREY.

These words mark a species of capture.

Booty, in French butin, Danish bytte, Dutch buyt, Teutonick beute, probably comes from the Teutonick bat a useful thing, denoting the thing taken for its use; spoil, in French depouille, Latin spolium, in Greek Kuor, signifies the things stripped off from the dead, from ovláw, Hebrew to spoil; prey, in French proie, Latin præda, is not improbably changed from prendo, prendo, or prehendo to lay hold of, signifying

the thing seized.

The first two are used as military terms or in attacks on an enemy, the latter in cases of particular violence. The soldier gets his booty; the combatant his spoils; the carnivorous animal bis prey. Booty respects what is of personal service to the captor; spoils whatever serves to designate his triumph; prey includes whatever gratifies the appetite and is to be consumed. When a town is taken, soldiers are too busy in the work of destruction and mischief to carry away much booty; in every battle the arms and personal property of the slain enemy are the lawful spoils of the victor; the hawk pounces on his prey, and carries him up to

his nest;

"T was in the dead of night, when sleep repairs Our bodies worn with toils, our minds with cares, When Hector's ghost before my sight appears: A bloody shroud he seem'd, and bath'd in tears, Unlike that Hector who return'd from toils Of war, triumphant in Eacian spoils.-DRYDEN. Greediness stimulates to take booty; ambition produces an eagerness for spoils; a ferocious appetite impels to a search for prey. Among the ancients the prisoners of war who were made slaves constituted a part of their booty; and even in later periods such a capture was good booty, when ransom was paid for those who could liberate themselves. Among some savages the head or limb of an enemy constituted part of their spoils. Among cannibals the prisoners of war are the prey of the conquerors.

Booty and prey are often used in an extended and figurative sense. Plunderers obtain a rich booty; the diligent bee returns loaded with its booty; When they (the French National Assembly) had finally determined on a state resource from church booty, they came on the 14th of April, 1790, to a solemn resolu tion on the subject.'-BURKE. It is necessary that animals should become a prey to man, in order that man may not become a prey to them; every thing in nature becomes a prey to another thing, which in its turn falls a prey to something else. All is change but order. Man is a prey to the diseases of his body or his mind, and after death to the worms;

The wolf, who from the nightly ford
Forth drags the bleating prey, ne'er drank ber milk,
Nor wore her warming fleece.-THOMSON.

RAVAGE, DESOLATION, DEVASTATION. Ravage comes from the Latin rapio, and the Greek donaw, signifying a seizing or tearing away; desolation, from solus alone, signifies made solitary or reduced to solitude; devastation, in Latin devastatio, from devasto to lay waste, signifies reducing to a wasta or desert.

* Vide Roubaud: "Proie, butin "

Ravage expresses less than either desolation or devastation: a breaking, tearing, or destroying is implied in the word ravage; but the desolation goes to the entire un peopling a land, and the devastation to the entire clearing away of every vestige of cultivation. Torrents, flames, tempests, and wild beasts ravage;

Beasts of prey retire, that all night long,
Urg'd by necessity, had rang'd the dark,
As if their conscious ravage shunn'd the light,
Asham'd.-THOMSON.

War, plague, and famine desolate;

Amid thy bow'rs the tyrant's hand is seen,
And desolation saddens all thy green.

GOLDSMITH.

sians.'-CUMBERLAND. Mischief and bloodshed attend rapine; loss attends plunder; distress and ruin follow wherever there has been pillage.

RAPACIOUS, RAVENOUS, VORACIOUS. Rapacious, in Latin rapaz, from rapio to seize, signifies seizing or grasping a thing with an eager desire to have; ravenous, from the Latin rabies a fury, and rapio to seize, signifies the same as rapacious; voracious, from vore to devour, signifies an eagerness to devour.

The idea of greediness, which forms the leading features in the signification of all these terms, is varied in the subject and the object: rapacious is the quality peculiar to beasts of prey, or of men who are actuated by a similar spirit of plunder; A display of our wealth before robbers is not the way to restrain their boldness, or to lessen their rapacity.-BURKE. Kavenous and voracious are common to all animals, when impelled by hunger. The beasts of the forest are rapacious at all times; all animals are more or less ravenous or voracious, as circumstances may make animals as food; the ravenous applies to the seizing of any thing which one takes for one's food;

Armies of barbarians, who inundate a country, carry devastation with them wherever they go; How much the strength of the Roman republick is impaired, and what dreadful devastation has gone forth into all its provinces-MELMOTH (Letters of Cicero). * Nothing resists ravages, they are rapid and terrible; nothing arrests desolation, it is cruel and unpitying; devastation spares nothing, it is ferocious and indefatigable. Ravages spread alarm and terrour; deso-them: the rapacious applies to the seizing of other lation, grief and despair; devastation, dread and

horrour.

Ravage is employed likewise in the moral application; desolation and devastation only in the proper application to countries. Disease makes its ravages on beauty; death makes its ravages among men in a more terrible degree at one time than at another;

Would one think 't were possible for love
To make such ravage in a noble soul ?-ADDISON.

Again the holy fires on altars burn,
And once again the rav'nous birds return.

DRYDEN.

A lion is rapacious when it seizes on its prey; it is ravenous in the act of consuming it. The word ravenous respects the haste with which one eats; the word voracious respects the quantity which one consumes;

A

Ere you remark another's sin,

Bid thy own conscience look within;
Control thy more voracious bill,

Nor for a breakfast nations kill.-GAY.
ravenous person is loath to wait for the dressing of
his food; he consumes it without any preparation: a
voracious person not only eats in haste, but he con
sumes great quantities, and continues to do so for a
Abstinence from food, for an unusual
long time.
length, will make any healthy creature ravenous; habit
intemperance in eating, or a diseased appetite, wik
produce voracity.

OVERSPREAD, OVERRUN, RAVAGE. To overspread signifies simply to cover the whole surface of a body; but to overrun is a mode of spreading, namely, by running: things in general, therefore, are said to overspread which admit of extension; nothing can be said to overrun but what literally or figuratively runs: the face is overspread with spots; the ground is overrun with weeds. To overrun and to ravage are both employed to imply the active and extended destruction of an enemy; but the former ex-ual presses more than the latter; a small body may ravage in particular parts; but immense numbers are said to overrun, as they run into every part: the Barbarians overran all Europe, and settled in different countries; detachments are sent out to ravage the country or neighbourhood; 'The storm of hail and fire, with the darkness that overspread the land for three days, are 'Most desdescribed with great strength.'-ADDISON. potick governments are naturally overrun with ignoWhile Herod was rance and barbarity.'-ADDISON. absent, the thieves of Trachonites ravaged with their depredations all the parts of Judea and Colo-Syria that lay within their reach.'-PRIDEAUX.

RAPINE, PLUNDER, PILLAGE. The idea of property taken from another contrary to his consent is included in all these terms: but the term rapine includes most violence; plunder includes most removal or carrying away; pillage most search and scrutiny after. A soldier, who makes a sudden incursion into an enemy's country, and carries away whatever comes within his reach, is guilty of rapine; Upon the banks

Of Tweed, slow winding thro' the vale, the seat Of war and rapine once.-SOMERVILLE. Robbers frequently carry away much plunder when they break into houses; 'Ship-money was pitched upon as fit to be formed by excise and taxes, and the burden of the subjects took off by plunderings and sequestrations.'-SOUTH. When an army sack a town they strip it of every thing that is to be found, and go away loaded with pillage; Although the Eretrians for a time stood resolutely to the defence of their city, it was given up by treachery on the seventh day, and pillaged and destroyed in a most barbarous manner by the Per

* Vide Roubaud: "Ravager, desoler, devaster, saccager."

As the leading idea in the term rapacious is that of plunder, it may be extended to things figuratively. Any of these, without regarding the pains of church' men, grudge them those small remains of ancient piety, which the rapacity of some ages has scarce left to the church.'-SPRAT.

SANGUINARY, BLOODY, BLOOD-THIRSTY. Sanguinary, from sanguis, is employed both in the sense of bloody or having blood; blood-thirsty, or the thirsting after blood: sanguinary, in the first case, relates only to blood shed, as a sanguinary engagement, or a sanguinary conflict; They have seen the French rebel against a mild and lawful monarch with more fury than ever any people has been known to rise against the most illegal usurper or the most sanguinary tyrant.'-BURKE. Bloody is used in the familiar application, to denote the simple presence of blood, as a bloody coat, or a bloody sword;

And from the wound,
Black bloody drops distill'd upon the ground.
DRYDEN.

In the second case, sanguinary is employed to characterize the tempers of persons only; blood-thirsty to characterize the tempers of persons or animals: the French revolution has given us many specimens how sanguinary men may become who are abandoned to their own furious passions; tigers are by nature the most blood-thirsty of all creatures; The Peruvians fought not like the Mexicans, to glut blood-thirsty divinities with human sacrinces.'-ROBERTSON.

TO ENCROACH, INTRENCH, INTRUDE,
INVADE, INFRINGE.

Encroach, in French encrocher, is compounded of en or in and crouch cringe or creep, signifying to creep into any thing; intrench, compounded of in and trench,sig

508

All these terms denote an unauthorized procedure; but the two former designate gentle or silent actions, the latter violent if not noisy actions.

Why hast thou, Satan, broke the bounds prescrib'a
To thy transgressions?-MILTON.

It is the business of government to see that the rights
and privileges of individuals or particular bodies be
not infringed: policy but too frequently runs counter
to equity; where the particular interests of princes are
more regarded than the dictates of conscience, treaties
and compacts are first violated and then justified: the
passions, when not kept under proper control, will
ever hurry men on to transgress the limits of right
reason.

INFRINGEMENT, INFRACTION.

Encroach is often an imperceptible action, performed with such art as to elude observation; it is, according to its derivation, an insensible creeping into: intrench is in fact a species of encroachment, namely, that perceptible species which consists in exceeding the boundInfringement and infraction, which are both dearies in marking out the ground or space: it should be one of the first objects of a parent to check the first in- rived from the Latin verb infringo or frango (v. To dications of an encroaching disposition in their chil- infringe), are employed according to the different dren; according to the building laws, it is made action-senses of the verb infringe: the former being applied able for any one to intrench upon the street or publick to the rights of individuals, either in their domestick or publick capacity; and the latter rather to national road with their houses or gardens. In an extended application of these terms we may transactions. Politeness, which teaches us what is speak of encroaching on a person's time, or intrench due to every man in the smallest concerns, considers ing on the sphere, &c. of another: intrude and invade any unasked-for interference in the private affairs of designate an unauthorized entry; the former in viola- another as an infringement; 'We see with Orestes tion of right, equity, or good manners; the latter in (or rather with Sophocles), that "it is fit that such violation of publick law: the former is more commonly gross infringements of the moral law (as parricide) applied to individuals; the latter to nations or large should be punished with death."-MACKENZIE. communities: unbidden guests intrude themselves Equity, which enjoins on nations as well as individusometimes into families to their no small annoyance; als, an attentive consideration to the interests of the an army never invades a country without doing some whole, forbids the infraction of a treaty in any case; mischief: nothing evinces a greater ignorance and im-No people can, without the infraction of the universali pertinence than to intrude one's self into any company where we may of course expect to be unwelcome; in the feudal times, when civil power was invested in the hands of the nobility and petty princes, they were incessantly invading each other's territories; 'It is observed by one of the fathers that he who restrains himself in the use of things lawful will never encroach upon things forbidden.'-JOHNSON. 'Religion intrenches upon none of our privileges, invades none of our pleasures.'--SOUTH. One of the chief characteristicks of the golden age, of the age in which neither care nor danger had intruded on mankind, is the community of possessions.'--JOHNSON.

Invade has likewise an improper as well as a proper acceptation; in the former case it bears a close analogy to infringe: we speak of invading rights, or infring ing rights; but the former is an act of greater violence than the latter: by an authorized exercise of power the rights of a people may be invaded; by gradual steps and imperceptible means their liberties may be infringed: invade is used only for publick privileges; infringe is applied also to those which belong to individuals.

King John of England invaded the rights of the Barons in so senseless a manner as to give them a colour for their resistance; it is of importance to the peace and well-being of society that men should, in their different relations, stations, and duties, guard against any infringement on the sphere or department of such as come into the closest connexion with them;

No sooner were his eyes in slumber bound,
When from above a more than mortal sound
Invades his ears.-DRYDEN.

'The King's partisans maintained that, while the prince
commands no military force, he will in vain by violence
attempt an infringement of laws so clearly defined by
means of late disputes.'-HUME.

TO INFRINGE, VIOLATE, TRANSGRESS.
Infringe, v. To encroach; violate, from the Latin
vis force, signifies to use force towards; transgress, v.
Offence.

Civil and moral laws are infringed by those who act
in opposition to them; I hold friendship to be a very
holy league, and no less than a piacle to infringe it.
-HOWELL. Treaties and engagements are violated
by those who do not hold them sacred;

No violated leagues with sharp remorse
Shall sting the conscious victor.-SOMERVILLE.
The bounds which are prescribed by the moral law are
transgressed by those who are guilty of any excess;

league of social beings, incite those practices in an other dominion which they would themselves punish in their own.'-JOHNSON.

INVASION, INCURSION, IRRUPTION,
INROAD.

The idea of making a forcible entrance into a foreign territory is common to all these. Invasion, from vado to go, expresses merely this general idea, without any particular qualification; incursion, from curre to run, signifies a basty and sudden invasion; irruption, from rumpo to break, signifies a particularly violent invasion; inroad, from in and road, signifies a making a road or way for one's self, which includes invasion and occupation. Invasion is said of that which passes in distant lands; Alexander invaded India; Hannibal crossed the Alps, and made an invasion into Italy;

The nations of the Ausonian shore Shall hear the dreadful rumour, from afar, Of arm'd invasion, and embrace the war. DRYDEN. Incursion is said of neighbouring states; the borderers on each side the Tweed used to make frequent incursions into England or Scotland; Britain by its situation was removed from the fury of these barbarous incursions.'-HUME. Invasion is the act of a regular army; it is a systematick military movement: irruption is the irregular and impetuous movement of undisciplined troops. The invasion of France by the allies was one of the grandest military movements that the world ever witnessed; the irruption of the Goths and Vandals into Europe has been acted over again by the late revolutionary armies of France; The study of ancient literature was interrupted in Europe, by the irruption of the northern nations.'-JOHNSON.

An invasion may be partial and temporary; one invades from various causes, but not always from hostility to the inhabitants: an inroad is made by a conqueror who determines to dispossess the existing oc cupier of the land: invasion is therefore to inroad only as a means to an end. He who invades a country, and gets possession of its strong places so as to have an entire command of the land, is said to make inroads into that country; but since it is possible to get forcible possession of a country by other means besides that of a military entry, there may be an inroad where there is no express invasion; From Scotland we have had in former times some alarms, and inroads into the northern parts of this kingdom.'-BACON. Alexander made such inroads into Persia, as to become master of the whole country; but the French republick, and all its usurped authorities, made inroads into different countries by means of spies and revolutionary incen