other's modifying powers; or whether it depends on some other cause. Considerations of relative specific gravities give us no information on the subject.

Be this as it may, one would be induced to conclude that similarity of composition would give origin to a great facility of converting one substance into the other; and this is just what we find to be the case in practice. A statement of a few cases of the conversion of starch into sugar will be necessary to support this position.

It

A mixture of starch and water, if exposed to each other's action for a length of time, as two years, no matter whether in the air, or in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump, wili be found much altered. The starch is changed into other substances, one half of it being actually converted into sugar. is also known, that if starch and gluten be mixed with hot water, and allowed to act on each other for a sufficient time, the starch will become sugar. But it is a singular fact, that if starch, without any admixture, be boiled in water, for some days, we obtain a bitter instead of a sweet substance. These subjects will be resumed hereafter.

But it is possible to convert starch into sugar in a much more decided manner. If a quantity of starch, no matter whether obtained from wheat or potatoes, be boiled with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, incessantly during a few hours, occasionally adding water as it evaporates, so as to preserve perfeet fluidity; then saturating with lime; continuing the boiling, after separating the sulphate of lime until the solution be concentrated; a dark, syrupy liquid is obtained, which, on cooling, affords abundance of sugar, in crystals. This sugar certainly differs, in some respects, from common sugar; it is not quite so sweet, nor so soluble in water; it crystallises differently; it is fusible at a much lower heat, and its solution ferments without the addition of yeast. It has been ascertained that, during the whole process of its formation, not a bubble of gas is discharged; that the sulphuric acid remains unchanged; and that the contact of air is unnecessary. These facts appear to countenance the supposition just now suggested, that starch and sugar are the same in composition, and that the conversion is effected by some unknown agency of the sulphuric acid in altering the mode of combination in which the carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen are held together. One hundred parts of starch, when thus converted into sugar, become better than one hundred and ten parts; and this sugar is convertible, by fermentation, into alcohol, like any other kind.

This production of sugar is not confined to potato or wheaten starch; rice starch has been changed into sugar by the same process. The sweetness of frost-bitten potatoes seems to be owing to a spontaneous conversion of starch into sugar. But, according to M. Pescier, potatoes naturally contain a little sugar. We can also convert starch into sugar by a much more simple process than boiling with dilute sulphuric acid. When grains of wheat, barley, bere, oats, or maize, are sown in the earth, under proper circumstances of air, heat, and moisture, as soon as germination has commenced, and continued a little time, it will be found that the farina has disappeared in a great ineasure, and that its place is supplied by a saccharine matter of a peculiar kind. It is very sweet; it readily dissolves in water, and forms a syrrup, which, if evaporated, acquires almost precisely the sweetness and flavour of treacle. This case of the conversion of starch into sugar is not very different from that first described, where a mixture of starch and water, long exposed, was partly converted into sugar: the vegetating process of the grain seems to have merely hastened the change. Maize affords the most striking results.

We are now prepared to understand what the nature of the change is by which the albumen of seeds, as it is improperly called, is altered from a hard, or farinaceous, or horny substance, to the soft and readily soluble food which is adapted to the feeble assimilating powers of the embryo plant, just germinating in the cotyledons. This was the subject which led to our enquiry into the convertibility of starch; and we now perceive that what is cailed albumen, the chief ingredient of which is starch, is, in fact, changed into sugar, not precisely similar to cane sugar, but a saccharine principle better fitted as food for the infant plant, and much more adapted than the original horny insoluble matter of the seed to enter into those ramifications of vessels which open into the rootlet, and are intended to convey to it its Butriment.

Art has taught mankind to imitate nature in this most important process of converting starch into sugar, by means of germination. What is taking place in a seed sunk in the ground cannot be seer; and a great quantity of seeds once sown in the

earth cannot be recovered. On this account the process of sowing is altogether dispensed with in the artificial method, and all the necessary stages of germination are thus brought about, with as much energy, although without the assistance of the soil. The process by which these changes are brought about is called malting; and as society is constituted, it is one of prime interest to mankind; the outline of it is as follows:-The grain is steeped in cold water during a certain period; the water is then allowed to drain off; the grain is spread out in a deep heap; it gradually heats; the rootlets begin to shoot out; afterwards the plumula begins to grow; and when this has grown to a certain extent within the grain, the further germination is checked by exposing the grain on a kiln, heated by fire to such a degree as extinguishes the vitality of the seed. At this period it is found that the starch is, in a great measure, converted into saccharine matter. The result of this forced germination is, like that of the natural one, the assimilation of the natural food of the embryo plant to its wants during the first stages of its growth, before its roots are capable of providing for themselves. Donovan

EFFECTS OF IVY ON TREES.-It appears to be a vulgar prejudice, that ivy kills the trees it clings to. If it rooted itself. as is erroneously supposed, in their bark, and fed on their juices, it might merit the accusation of a destroyer, but it derives its nourishment wholly from the ground, where it is rooted; and the supposed roots on the bark of trees are only tendrils of hold-fasts, to enable it to climb. The opinion of its injuring trees seems to have arisen, and very naturally too, from the fact, that it prefers to climb up a dead or dying branch, and wil not attach itself to very young wood at all. Mr. Reptan, the landscape gardener, gives numerous facts to show that trees overrun with ivy, so far from being injured by it, grow most luxuriantly. Evelyn says, that when ivy is stript from the trees, they are of ten killed by the cold in the ensuing winter.

SERVICE-BERRY SPIRIT.

THE highly ornamental tree, he pyrus aucuparia, or mountain ash, (rowan-tree, as it is vulgarly called in Ireland,) affords clusters of scarlet-red berries, which have a remarkably acerb and bitterish taste. Yet they resemble the grape in containing sugar and natural yeast in the due proportions to produce a perfect and spontaneous fermentation. Having expressed a quantity of their juice I left it to ferment; and when the wine was perfect, it was distilled, and an excellent brandy was obtained. The quantity of brandy afforded by the berries cannot now be certainly ascertained; but I am almost sure, that one gallon of the juice produced half a pint of spirit, which was moderately strong. It is very probable, that the service tree might become a very valuable one if all its properties were known. It is beautiful tree: its timber is valuable; and its berries, beside being beautiful, are capable of affording an excellent brandy.

SPIRIT FROM THE APPLE OF THE POTATO.-"From expe riments made in France, at various places, it appears that the fruit or apples of the potato yield by proper treatment, as much bruised and fermented with about one-eighteenth or one tweealcohol as an equal quantity of grapes. The apples are to be tieth part their weight of some ferment, and then to be distilled."* These experiments require to be confirmed. If the result be not exaggerated, the stupidity of the world in not using potato-apples instead of grapes is unpardonable. The taste of the potato-apple, when ripe, is a mawkish sweet; but it has not one tenth of the sweetness of the grape..

Brande's Journal, vi. 157.

MECHANICAL POWER OF COALS.-It is well known to modern engineers that there is virtue in a bushel of coals, properly consumed, to raise seventy millions of pounds weight a foot high. This is actually the average effect of an engine at this moment working in Cornwall. The ascent of Mont Blanc from the valley of Chamouni is considered, and with justice, as the most toilsome feat that a strong man can execute in two days. The combustion of two pounds of coal would place him on the summit.

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THE

[From Original MS. Collections.] LIMERICK.

LIMERICK, the third city in Ireland, is situated ninety-four miles from Dublin, and fifty from Cork, on the shore of the finest navigable river in the British European dominions-the Shannon, and with a port in the heart of the most fertile parts of Ireland, capable of admitting vessels of 400, or 500 tons burden, at a distance of nearly eighty English miles from the sea, and though abounding with a good many little islands, yet in no place presenting any rocks, sands, or other dangerous obstacles to navigation.

The city is upwards of three miles in circumference, and is divided into twenty-one parishes, or parts of parishes, containing 7,827 houses, and a population, according to the census of 1821, of 59,045 persons, encreased to 66,575, in that of 1832. The northern liberties comprise twenty-two denominations of land, or 1,714 acres, while the southern contain seventy-three denominations, or 13,946 acres. It has two weekly markets, and four yearly fairs, to that held on the 4th of August a peculiar privilege was annexed, that during fifteen days no person could be arrested in the city, or liberties, on any process issuing out of the Tholsel-Court of Limerick.

According to the usual national distinction, too long fomented, it is divided into the Irish and English town; the latter stands on the King's Island, formed by the River Shannon. The grounds about it are rich and exquisitely beautiful; the situation, however, renders the air moist, and consequently rather unwholesome to strangers.

Besides the cathedral, and other churches, there are many charitable hospitals, schools, and public buildings here. In St. Michael's parish there is one Charity-school for 400 children, supported by subscription, and conducted by four monks; another Roman Catholic school for 650 boys, three others for less numbers; a Mendicity-house for 300 mendicants, and an

is a school for 500 girls, taught by the nuns of St. Clare. In St. Nicholas's, two schools, called Dr. Hall's Free Schools. In St. Mary's parish is a Blue School; in St. John's a Lancasterian. In St. Patrick's parish there is a cotton factory, &c. &c. It is governed by a Mayor, Sheriffs, Recorder, Aldermen, and Burgesses, a privilege which it appears to have obtained in 1198, being ten years previous to the allowance of that right to the citizens of London. It was formerly entirely surrounded with a wall, and so late as 1760 there were seventeen of the city gates still standing. All these, however, with the exception of the water-gate of King John's Castle, have been demolished.

"The old city stands upon an island, formed by a branch of the Shannon, called the Abbey River, with the main current. It is said that the city was not originally insular, and that the Abbey River was a work of art, made under the auspices of the monks of one of the numerous abbies with which that part of the city, called the Island, once abounded, and hence it is said the name is derived. What night have been the design of the projectors in undertaking such a stupendous work, it is rather difficult to conjecture. Perhaps they intended it as a defence for the city. In the channel of this Abbey River, according to popular belief, now lie, unrusting and unrung, the silver bells of St. Mary's Cathedral, while the secret of the precise spot where they are hidden is known. only to the oldest friar of the order, by whom they were concealed."

I have extracted this notice from a more detailed account of the legend, as given in the IRISH MONTHLY MAGAZINE, No. XI., in an article rendered extremely interesting by the local associations which it affords with Limerick, and particularly by the vivid description of a boat-race down its river, and through its bridges. The city is connected to the county of Clare, by THOMOND BRIDGE, above represented, and, certainly, one of the most ancient architectural monuments in the south of Ireland. This division of the city was formerly considered as a principal for

BB

pose them, were astonished at their intrepidity, and fled without striking a blow; they were, however, pursued with considerable slaughter, and the English thus became masters of the city. The death of Strongbow, however, and other circumstances, threw it again into the possession of Donald O'Brien. 1177, King Henry assigned Limerick to the sons of the Earl of Cornwall; they, however, surrendered this grant, on the

630, About this time the CATHEDRAL of Limerick was first erected and dedicated to St. Munchin.

812, Giraldus Cambrensis attributes the foundation of the city of Limerick to the Danes, who, at this time, under the command of Ivar, sailed up the Shannon, and made good their landing here. There is, however, abundant evidence that this city can lay claim to much higher antiquity.

943, Callaghan, King of South Munster, assembling his chiefs, exhorted them to arm every where against the Danes, whereupon Limerick was selected for their first attack. "A thousand of his chosen warriors," according to the Irish Annals, "marched upon this service, headed by Callaghan, under whom were O'Donovan, O'Sullivan, O'Keeffe, O'Riordan, O'Leaghan, Hugh Mac Cuillenan and other chiefs. Heralds were sent to require the Danes to surrender Limerick and give hostages for their future good behaviour; the reply of those marauders, however, was that so far from waiting to be attacked they would mrarch out of the city to give open battle.' This they accordingly did in four divisions, each of 400 armed with coats of mail, besides light-armed troops, and the battle was fought at Singleland.

"O'Sullivan, who acted as general under Callaghan, harangued his men in an animated speech, which was answered with the clash of shields and swords of his soldiers. The fight commenced by a discharge of stones from the slings of the light troops, by flights of arrows, spears, and lances. The heavyarmed troops then engaged breast to breast, in a dreadful conflict, while the Danish commanders left nothing unessayed to prevent this furious onset from making an impression on their troops. Callaghan, at length, singled out Amlave, the Danish commander, and by one stroke of his sword split his helmet and scull, and laid him dead at his feet. O'Sullivan followed the bright example, and engaged Moran, who was called son to the King of Denmark, and by a well-armed stroke, between the helmet and breast-plate, cut off his head. O'Keeffe, ran Magnus, the standard-bearer, through the body, and after a gallant defence Lochlin was killed by the gallant O'Riordan. The Danes now gave way on every side, and the Irish pursued them into the city, putting numbers of them to the sword in their castles and houses. But instead of keeping possession of the town, Callaghan," (as if actuated by the Irish prejudice to artificial fortifications,) was content with exacting large contributions from the Danes, part of which was paid down in gold and merchandise, and hostages taken as a security for the remainder."

1172, O'Brien of Thomond surrendered his city of Limerick to King Henry, and did homage for the rest of his territory. 1174, Henry de Montmorres invaded the territories of Donald, King of Limerick, but was defeated with signal loss.

1175, Raymond le Gross, the Achilles of the expedition, assisted by the people of Ossory, arrived without opposition on the banks of the Shannon to reduce Donald to allegiance, but the bridges being broken down, and the river rapid, the progress of his forces was checked. "Two, however, of the boldest knights ventured to ford the river and succeeded; but returning to conduct their associates, one of them was drowned. Meyler Fitz Henry, encouraged by these examples, threw himself boldly into the river and swam across, when a great shout was raised on both sides." Raymond now seeing the danger his nephew was exposed to, harangued his men according to the classical custom attributed to those times, and remonstrated against the opprobrium of suffering their comrade to perish unsupported, an incentive which he better enforced by his own example, advancing as he did from the rere, and leading his troops into the river. His forces, actuated by his gallant behaviour, followed in his wake, and gained the opposite side with the loss of but two The Irish, who were by that time pouring down to op

men.

land—for, adds the Abbot Benedict, a writer cotemporaneous with the event, although the King of Limerick had sworn fealty to Henry the Second, yet his successor witnessing the evils and cruelties, (mala et sævitias,) which the English adventurers inflicted upon him and the rest of his nation, was wholly reluctant to pledge his fealty, or enter covenant with them.

1178, Limerick was thereupon granted to Philip de Braosa, to be held of the king and his son, John, at the service of sixty knights.

1194, Died Donald O'Brien, and with him terminated the kingdom of Limerick.

1207, Walter de Lacy, Lord of Meath, had considerable contests with the king's justices concerning the city of Limerick. 1227, The king assigned £100 of his rents, out of this city, to the Archbishop of Dublin, towards the discharge of a suin due by him to that prelate.

1237, A toll was granted for the purpose of enclosing Limerick with a wall.

1241, Donogh Cabragh O'Brien, King of Thomond, was buried in the Dominican Friary, which he had a short time previously founded, and which was situated a little behind the cathedral above delineated. Extracts from the registry of this house are still extant.

1250, About this time the Augustinian, and Grey Friaries were founded here by a lineal descendant of the Kings of Limerick and Thomond.

1290, About this time King Edward the First granted a charter to the Citizens of Limerick, empowering the freemen of the corporation to meet in their common court within said city, and there to make bye laws and regulations for their internal government.

1345, John O'Grady, Archbishop of Cashel, was interred here in the Dominican Friary.

1374, The king granted his especial protection to the nunnery at Limerick.

1399, A new charter was granted to the citizens of Limerick, while the Dominicans had, at the same time, an eleemosynary grant from the crown.

1424, The charters of Limerick were aided and confirmed; and again in 1430, and 1433.

1474, Richard Heron was appointed Master of the King's mint in the Castle of Limerick.

1476, James, Earl of Desmond, was appointed constable of this castle for life.

1483, Gerald, Earl of Kildare, Lord Deputy of Ireland, held a parliament here.

1495, A guild of merchants was incorporated in this city. 1503, Mac Namara, the head of his sept, was interred in the Dominican Friary here, which had been long the burial place of his ancient line.

1569, Limerick was one of the places where the acts and ordinances of the remarkable Parliament held in this year were ordered to be proclaimed.

1583, Queen Elizabeth confirmed the charters of her predecessors, Kings John, Edward the First, Henry the Fifth, Henry the Sixth, Henry the Seventh, and Edward the Sixth.

1607, John Burke, Lord of Brittas, was, by order of Lord Mountjoy, tried, in Limerick, for High Treason, and refusing to acknowledge the king's supremacy, was sentenced to death by the Lord Deputy, and executed at Gallows-green. His remains were interred at St. John's Church.

1609, King James granted a charter to Limerick, immediately after which the precise metes and boundaries of the Liberties and Franchises of the city were assigned and ascertained.

1642, Limerick was besieged and reduced by the Irish. 1651, Lord Clanrickard, on behalf of his majesty, with the consent of divers of the prelates, nobility, gentry, &c., of the City of Limerick, charged and assigned the same to the Duke of Lorrain, for the repayment of £20,000 lent by himn for the King's service in Ireland.

1652, General Ireton, strengthened by the forces of Lord Broghill, besieged Limerick. He sent a summons to that city, but his summons being rejected, he played his cannon upon it, beating down several houses, and making sad havoc in the town.

At last harassed as it also was, by famine and the plague, it yielded at discretion. The Governor, O'Neill, a brave soldier, had liberty to transport himself and some of his attendants to any foreign country. But as soon as the conquerors entered the city they beheld there a most lamentable spectacle, the plague having destroyed so many that the living could not bury the dead; and the famine had prevailed to such an extent over those who yet survived that they seemed to be but walking skeletons. Ireton, after two days sojourn there, took the infection of which he died, on the 26th November, yet not until the 6th of February following was he interred in Henry the Seventh's chapel, at Westminster, from whence his body was afterwards removed and buried at Tyburn. He was a man who well knew the depths of all Cromwell's counsels and purposes, and was of the same or greater pride and fierceness of nature. He was dark and reserved, absolute in his authority, never diverted from any resolution which he had espoused, and often thought to prevail over even Cromwell himself.

* *

1663, "His majesty's store-house, and magazine in the castle of Limerick," writes Lord Orrery to the Duke of Ormonde, "is capable to contain all requisite arms, with a small train fit for a little army, but it is so hugely out of repair that if it be not forthwith begun upon, I doubt it will fall, and do much mischief. * * The two towers, which make the gate-house of his majesty's castle there, were floored and roofed by the usurpers, but are very much decayed. The guard-house, made by them, also is so ill in order that every shower of rain wets the soldiers.The usurpers also built two houses in the castle, one for the officers, and one for thirty soldiers, which too are much out of repair. Fourteen pounds would make up the sides, which are the avenue to the castle-gate, and make at the end thereof a small ravelin of sawed palisadoes, which would be a great security to the place, which now has nothing to cover the gate by which the castle is entered from the city, or from THOMOND BRIDGE, whereby it is liable to a surprise if any design should be on the place. * There are besides three great towers unroofed and unfloored. If those were roofed and floored they would contain and accommodate the whole company garrisoned there, and the twenty warders which are but enough at their night's duty, to answer the necessary duty of the place, for want of which we can now lodge but the warders and a squadron of my company in the castle, the other two squadrons are quartered in the city, and come to do their duties from thence. St. John's Citadel is in pretty good condition, and the new bulwark, in the king's castle, which is filled up with earth, and which is next to the city, three pounds will repair. Of forty guns, great and small, which are at Limerick, there are but three mounted as they should be, two of which are small brass guns."

*

1666, The following interesting notice is from the same correspondence in this year." By his Majesty's royal favour, and at your Grace's suit, I was commissioned Governor of his Majesty's castle and city of Limerick. The pay is £10 by the year, but there is a perquisite belongs to the constable of the castle which is the profits of the king's part of the island. The city stands upon the west part of it; the east part is kept for grazing of the town cattle, and a little spot of it enclosed and made a bowling-green. I give this perquisite to my Deputy Governor. He lets the green for ter pounds a year, and the grazing amounts one year with another to about £28.

"If by your Grace's favour his majesty would give me a lease of his share of the island, for ninety-nine years, I would build on it, which would be an enlargement, beautifying and strengthening of the city, and after some years an advantage to me and my son.

"But that whosoever shall succeed me in that goverment may he no loser by my grant, I shall willingly submit to pay to the crown or to the constable for the time being, during my lease of ninety-nine years, £38 a-year after my decease, which is as inuch as unbuilded it now yields. The crown will be no loser for ninety-uine years, nor the constable of the castle, and after ninety-nine years, the crown will for ever have the benefit of my building. The city also will be thereby much enlarged, beautified, and strengthened."

1686, "I have viewed the king's castle and the citadel here," writes Lord Clarendon, from Limerick, "which are in very ill circumstances; Colonel Lacy is Deputy Governor thereof, under my Lord Blessington.

In the same year that nobleman, as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, issued the royal circular to the corporation of Limerick, as he had to other corporations, alleging that various Roman Catholic subjects were considerable merchants and dealers, yet

excluded from being freemen of said corporation, although there was no law for such exclusion, and thereby requiring them to be admitted in future without taking the oath of supremacy, or any other oath than that of allegiance, and that of freemen. I am on the verge of the most remarkable event that connects itself with the annals of this historical city, yet even here must I content myself with emphatically directing my readers' attention to THE STONE, yet remaining at the Clare side of Thomond Bridge, perhaps the most eloquent object in all the above delineation.

It is not that ominous stone of sovereignty that in olden time resounded to the inaugurations of our king, that Fergus conveyed into Scotland, and royal policy has since incased in the imperial coronation seat-yet it has been the stone of a long and weary destiny to this country; the table on which the commandments of her future constitution were ratified; the altar whereon the civil and religious rights of Ireland were guaranteedA few years passed on and all was broken, but―THE STONE.

"There, Sir, stop;

Let us not burden our remembrances With a heaviness that's gone !"

J. D.

ANCIENT IRISH BIOGRAPHY.-No. XXV.

CALLAGHAN, KING OF MUNSTER. THAT pre-eminence which the princes of Heremonian descent had long maintained in the government of Ireland began at length, towards the middle of the tenth century, to decline, and was succeeded by the less fortunate, but not less distin guished, ascendancy of the Heberian dynasty. The independence of the latter had never been violated from that period, to which I have frequently reverted, when the country was divided between the descendants of these two chief Milesian families; but as the former were vested with the monarchical authority, and, from their position, were more involved in the remarkable affairs which form the history of the nation during the interval from the Christian era, they exercised more power and engrossed more general interest than their brethren of the Southern division. Such supremacy, however trifling, would have been the signal in any other country for ambitious aggressions on the one side, and jealous resistance to every assumption of superiority on the other; but in Ireland, whatever might have been the tendency to civil dissension, and however frequent, unjustified, and disgraceful the feuds of our princes may have been, they rarely arose from that evil principle which urges men to monopolise power and look with envious grudging upon the prospe rity and possessions of their neighbours. The privilege of selecting their rulers was so much prized and so carefully guarded by the people, though always exercised with due regard for the laws of hereditary succession, that the ambition of individuals could never receive the public sanction, or violate with impunity the principles of the constitution, on this point. Hence it was that the two great divisions of the kingdom, and even the minor states, continued for many centuries to be governed solely by the princes of those families, by whom they were originally possessed; and perhaps it would have been better for our country at the present day had this excellent system never suffered interruption, but that is a question for discus

sion on a future occasion.

The progress of the Munster princes in power naturally developed individual character among them more deserving the attention of the biographer than among their rivals sinking to decay; I have, therefore selected the prince named above as the subject of this memoir, instead of one of the monarchs who ruled about this time; I have already noticed the jealousy that existed between the Dalcassians of North Munster, and the Eugenians of South Munster, respecting the right of alternate succession to the crown of the two Munsters, or Leath Mogha. The Eugenian princes were, in general, more fortunate, or more powerful, than their rivals, but the Dalcassians frequently asserted their rights with becoming vigour, and sometimes succeeded in having it peacefully recognised as in the case of Lorcan, the successor of Cormac Mac Cuillenan; on which occasion I have already intimated that Callaghan, surnamed Cashel, was his competitor. It is remarkable, however, that no interference was ever attempted in the internal government of their respective states, whichever party might possess the superior dignity for the time.

On the death of Flaherty, prince and bishop, who succeeded Lorcan in the throne of the Munsters, Kennedy, the son of the latter, then in the possesion of the throne of North Munster,