Essential point in English syntax. Why study syntax? English syntax follows the Latin to a limited extent; but its leading characteristic is, that English syntax is founded upon the meaning and the logical connection of words rather than upon their form consequently it is quite as necessary to place words properly, and to think clearly of the meaning of words, as to study inflected forms. For example, the sentence, "The savage here the settler slew," is ambiguous. Savage may be the subject, following the regular order of subject; or settler may be the subject, the order being inverted. In Latin, distinct forms would be used, and it would not matter which one stood first. 391. There is, then, a double reason for not omitting syntax as a department of grammar, First, To study the rules regarding the use of inflected forms, some of which conform to classical grammar, while some are idiomatic (peculiar to our own language). Second, To find out the logical methods which control us in the arrangement of words; and particularly when the grammatical and the logical conception of a sentence do not agree, or when they exist side by side in good usage. As an illustration of the last remark, take the sentence," Besides these famous books of Scott's and Johnson's, there is a copious 'Life' by Sheridan." In this there is a possessive form, and added to it the preposition of, also expressing a possessive relation. This is not logical; it is not consistent with the general rules of grammar: but none the less it is good English. Also in the sentence, "None remained but he," grammatical rules would require him instead of he after the preposition; yet the expression is sustained by good authority. 392. In some cases, authorities that is, stand- Some rules not rigid. ard writers differ as to which of two construc tions should be used, or the same writer will use both indifferently. Instances will be found in treating of the pronoun or noun with a gerund, pronoun and antecedent, sometimes verb and subject, etc. When usage varies as to a given construction, both forms will be given in the following pages. syntax. 393. Our treatment of syntax will be an en- The basis of deavor to record the best usage of the present time on important points; and nothing but important points will be considered, for it is easy to confuse a student with too many obtrusive don'ts. The constructions presented as general will be justified by quotations from modern writers of English who are regarded as "standard; " that is, writers whose style is generally acknowledged as superior, and whose judgment, therefore, will be accepted by those in quest of authoritative opinion. Reference will also be made to spoken English when its constructions differ from those of the literary language, and to vulgar English when it preserves forms which were once, but are not now, good English. It may be suggested to the student that the only way to acquire correctness is to watch good usage everywhere, and imitate it. NOUNS. 394. Nouns have no distinct forms for the nominative and objective cases: hence no mistake can be made in using them. But some remarks are required concerning the use of the possessive case. 395. When two or more possessives modify the same noun, or indicate joint ownership or possession, the possessive sign is added to the last noun only; for example, — Live your king and country's best support. - Rowe. Adam and Eve's morning hymn. — MILTON. In Beaumont and Fletcher's " Sea Voyage," Juletta tells, etc. EMERSON. 396. When two or more possessives stand before the same noun, but imply separate possession or ownership, the possessive sign is used with each noun; as, He lands us on a grassy stage, Safe from the storm's and prelate's rage. MARVELL. Where were the sons of Peers and Members of Parliament in Anne's and George's time? - THACKERAY. Levi's station in life was the receipt of custom; and Peter's, the shore of Galilee; and Paul's, the antechamber of the High Priest. - RUSKIN. Swift did not keep Stella's letters. He kept Bolingbroke's, and Pope's, and Harley's, and Peterborough's. - THACKERAY. An actor in one of Morton's or Kotzebue's plays. — MACAULAY. Putting Mr. Mill's and Mr. Bentham's principles together. - Id. 397. The possessive preceding the gerund will be considered under the possessive of pronouns (Sec. 408). PRONOUNS. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 1. NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE FORMS. 398. Since most of the personal pronouns, together with the relative who, have separate forms for nominative and objective use, there are two general rules that require attention. rules. (1) The nominative use is usually marked by General the nominative form of the pronoun. (2) The objective use is usually marked by the objective form of the pronoun. These simple rules are sometimes violated in spoken and in literary English. Some of the violations are universally condemned; others are generally, if not universally, sanctioned. the nomina.. 399. The objective is sometimes found instead Objective for of the nominative in the following instances: (1) By a common vulgarism of ignorance or carelessness, no notice is taken of the proper form to be used as subject; as, He and me once went in the dead of winter in a one-hoss shay out to Boonville. - WHITCHER, Bedott Papers. It seems strange to me that them that preach up the doctrine don't admire one who carrys it out. - Josiah Allen's Wife. (2) By faulty analysis of the sentence, the true relation of the words is misunderstood; for exam tive. A safe rule. Than whom." ple, "Whom think ye that I am?" (In this, whom Harper, whom they agree was rather nice-look- Especially is this fault to be noticed after an ellipsis with than or as, the real thought being forgotten; thus, — But the consolation coming from devotion did not go far with such a one as her. - Trollope. This should be "as she," because the full expression would be "such a one as she is." 400. Still, the last expression has the support of many good writers, as shown in the following examples: She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or me. -THACKERAY. No mightier than thyself or me. — Shakespeare. - But he must be a stronger than thee. -SOUTHEY. If so, they are yet holier than we. -RUSKIN. Who would suppose it is the game of such as he? - DICKENS The robber and the murd'rer weak as we? I have no other saint than thou to pray to. MILTON. - LONGFELLOW. 401. One exception is to be noted. The expression than whom seems to be used universally instead of "than who." There is no special reason for this, but such is the fact; for example, — |