To chide marks a stronger degree of displeasure than reprimand, and reprimand than reprove or rebuke; a person may chide or reprimand in anger, he reproves and rebukes with coolness: great offences call forth chidings; omissions or mistakes occasion or require a reprimand; This sort of language was very severely reprimanded by the Censor, who told the criminal" that he spoke in contempt of the court." ADDISON AND STEELE. Irregularities of conduct give rise to reproof; He who endeavours only the happiness of him whom he reproves, will always have the satisfaction of either obtaining or deserving kindness.' JOHNSON. Improprieties of behaviour demand rebuke; With all the infirmities of his disciples he calmly bore; and his rebukes were mild when their provo

cations were great.' BLAIR.

Chiding and reprimanding are employed for of fences against the individual, and in cases where the greatest disparity exists in the station of the parties; a child is chid by his parent; a servant is reprimanded by his master.

Reproving and rebuking have less to do with the relation or station of the parties, than with the nature of the offence: wisdom, age, and experience, or a spiritual mission, give authority to reprove or rebuke those whose conduct has violated any law, human or divine the prophet Nathan reproved king David for his heinous offences against his Maker; our Saviour rebuked Peter for his presumptuous mode of speech.

TO ACCUSE, CHARGE, IMPEACH,

ARRAIGN.

Accuse, in Latin accuso, compounded of ac or ad and cuso or causa a cause or trial, signifies to bring to trial; charge, from the word cargo a burden, signifies to lay a burden; impeach, in French empecher to hinder or disturb, compounded of em or in and pes the foot, signifies to set one's foot or one's self against another; arraign, compounded of ar or ad and raign or range, signifies to range, or set at the bar of a tribunal.

The idea of asserting the guilt of another is common to these terms. Accuse in the proper sense is applied particularly to crimes, but it is also applied

to every species of offence; charge may be applied to crimes, but is used more commonly for breaches of moral conduct; we accuse a person of murder; we charge him with dishonesty.

Accuse is properly a formal action; charge is an informal action; criminals are accused, and their accusation is proved in a court of judicature to be true or false; The Countess of Hertford, demanding an audience of the Queen, laid before her the whole series of his mother's cruelty, and exposed the improbability of an accusation, by which he was charged with an intent to commit a murder that could produce no advantage.' JOHNSON (Life of Savage). Any person may be charged, and the charge may be either substantiated or refuted in the judgment of a third person; Nor was this irregularity the only charge which Lord Tyrconnel brought against him. Having given him a collection of valuable books stamped with his own arms, he had the mortification to see them in a short time exposed for sale.' JOHNSON (Life of Savage).

Impeach and arraign are both species of accusing ; the former in application to statesmen and state concerns, the latter in regard to the general conduct or principles; with this difference, that he who impeaches only asserts the guilt, but does not determine it; but those who arraign also take upon themselves to decide: statesmen are impeached for misdemeanors in the administration of government; Aris

togiton, with revengeful cunning, impeached several courtiers and intimates of the tyrant.' CUMBERLAND. Kings arraign governors of provinces and subordinate princes, and in this manner kings are sometimes arraigned before mock tribunals: our Saviour was arraigned before Pilate; and creatures in the madness of presumption arraign their Creator; O the inexpressible horror that will seize upon a poor sinner, when he stands arraigned at the bar of divine justice." SOUTH,

TO ACCUSE, CENSURE.

To accuse (v. To Accuse) is only to assert the guilt of another; to censure (v. To Censure) is to take that guilt for granted. We accuse only to make known the offence, to provoke inquiry; we censure in order to inflict a punishment. An accusation may be false or true; a censure mild or severe. It is extremely wrong to accuse another without sufficient grounds; If the person accused maketh his innocence plainly to appear upon his trial, the accuser is immediately put to an ignominious death.' SWIFT. But still worse to censure him without the most substantial grounds; A statesman, who is possest of real merit, should look upon his political censurers with the same neglect that a good writer regards his critics." ADDISON.

Every one is at liberty to accuse another of offences which he knows him for a certainty to have committed; but none can censure who are not authorised by their

age or station. Accusing is for the most part employed for public offences, or for private offences of much greater magnitude than those which call for censure; Mr. Locke accuses those of great negligence who discourse of moral things with the least obscurity in the terms they make use of.' BUDGELL. 'If any man measure his words by his heart, and speak as he thinks, and do not express more kindness to every man than men usually have for any man, he can hardly escape the censure of the want of breeding.' TILLOTSON.

To censure and animadvert are both personal, the one direct, the other indirect; criticism is directed to things, and not to persons only.

Censuring consists in finding some fault real or supposed; it refers mostly to the conduct of individuals. Animadvert consists in suggesting some error or impropriety; it refers mostly to matters of opinion and dispute; criticism consists in minutely examining the intrinsic characteristics, and appreciating the merits of each individually, or the whole collectively; it refers to matters of science and learning.

To censure requires no more than simple assertion; its justice or propriety often rests on the authority of the individual; Many an author has been dejected at the censure of one whom he has looked upon as an idiot.' ADDISON. Animadversions require to be accompanied with reasons; those who animadvert on the proceedings or opinions of others must state some grounds for their objections; I wish, Sir, you would do us the favour to animadvert frequently upon the false taste the town is in, with relation to the plays as well as operas.' STEELE. Criticism is altogether argumentative and illustrative: it takes nothing for granted, it analyses and decomposes, it compares and combines, it asserts and supports the assertions; It is ridiculous for any man to criticise on the works of another, who has not distinguished himself by his own performances.'

ADDISON.

The office of the censurer is the easiest and least honourable of the three; it may be assumed by ignorance and impertinence, it may be performed for the purpose of indulging an angry or imperious temper. The task of animadverting is delicate; it may be resorted to for the indulgence of an overweaning selfconceit. The office of a critic is both arduous and honourable; it cannot be filled by any one incompetent for the charge without exposing his arrogance and folly to merited contempt.

TO CENSURE, CARP, CAVIL. Censure has the same general meaning as given in the preceding articles (v. To Accuse); carp in Latin carpo, signifies to pluck; cavil, in French caviller, Latin cavillor, from cavillum a hollow man, and cavus hollow, signifies to be unsound or unsubstantial in speech.

To censure respects positive errors; to carp and cavil have regard to what is trivial or imaginary: the former is employed for errors in persons; the latter for supposed defects in things. Censures are frequently necessary from those who have the authority to use them; a good father will censure his children when their conduct is censurable: but censure may likewise be frequently unjust and frivolous; From a consciousness of his own integrity, a man assumes force enough to despise the little censures of ignorance and malice.' BUDGELL. Carping and cavilling are resorted to only to indulge ill-nature or self-conceit; whoever owes another a grudge will be most disposed to carp at all he does in order to lessen him in the esteem of others: those who contend more for victory than truth will be apt to cavil when they are at a loss for fair argument: party politicians carp at the measures of administration; It is always thus with pedants; they will ever be carping, if a gentleman or man of honour puts pen to paper.' STEELE. Infidels cavil at the evidences of Christianity, because they are determined to disbelieve; Envy and cavil are the natural fruits of laziness and ignorance, which was probably the reason that in the heathen mythology Momus is said to be the son of Nox and Somnus, of darkness and sleep.' ADDISON,

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ANIMADVERSION, CRITICISM,

STRICTURE.

Animadversion (v. To Censure) includes censure and reproof; criticism implies scrutiny and judgment, whether for or against; and stricture, from the Latin strictura and stringo to touch lightly upon, comprehends a partial investigation mingled with censure. We animadvert on a person's opinions by contradicting or correcting them; we criticise a person's works by minutely and rationally exposing their imperfections and beauties; we pass strictures on public measures by descanting on them cursorily, and censuring them partially.

Animadversions are too personal to be impartial; consequently they are seldom just; they are mostly resorted to by those who want to build up one system on the ruins of another; but the term is sometimes employed in an indifferent sense; These things fall under a province you have partly pursued already, and therefore demand your animadversion for the regulating so noble an entertainment as that of the stage.' STEELE. Criticism is one of the most important and honorable departments of literature; a critic

ought justly to weigh the merits and demerits of authors, but of the two his office is rather to blame than to praise; much less injury will accrue to the cause of literature from the severity than from the laxity of criticism; Just criticism demands not only that every beauty or blemish be minutely pointed out in its different degree and kind, but also that the reason and foundation of excellences and faults be accurately ascertained.' WARTON. Strictures are mostly the vehicles of party spleen; like most ephemeral productions, they are too superficial to be entitled to serious notice; but this term is also used in an indifferent sense for cursory critical remarks; To the end of most plays I have added short strictures, containing a general censure of faults or praise of excellence.' JOHNSON.

COMPLAINT, ACCUSATION.

Both these terms are employed in regard to the conduct of others, but the complaint, from the verb to complain, is mostly made in matters that personally affect the complainant; the accusation (v. To Accuse) is made of matters in general, but especially those of a moral nature. A complaint is made for the sake of obtaining redress; an accusation is made for the sake of ascertaining the fact or bringing to punishment. A complaint may be frivolous; an accusation false. People in subordinate stations should be careful to give no cause for complaint; On this occasion (of an interview with Addison), Pope made his complaint with frankness and spirit, as a man undeservedly neglected and opposed.' JOHNSON. The most guarded conduct will not protect any person from the unjust accusations of the malevolent; With guilt

enter distrust and discord, mutual accusation and stubborn self-defence.' JOHNSON.

TO FIND FAULT WITH, BLAME,
OBJECT TO.

All these terms denote not simply feeling, but also expressing dissatisfaction with some person or thing. To find fault with signifies here to point out a fault, either in some person or thing; to blame is said only of the person; object is applied to the thing only: we find fault with a person for his behaviour; we find fault with our seat, our conveyance, and the like; we blame a person for his temerity or his improvidence; we object to a measure that is proposed. We find fault with or blame that which has been done; we object to that which is to be done.

Finding fault is a familiar action applied to matters of personal convenience or taste; blame and object to, particularly the latter, are applied to serious objects. Finding fault is often the fruit of a discontented temper: there are some whom nothing will please, and who are ever ready to find fault with whatever comes in their way; Tragi-comedy you have your self found fault with very justly.' BUDGELL. Blame

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is a matter of discretion; we blame frequently in order to correct; It is a most certain rule in reason and moral philosophy, that where there is no choice, there can be no blame.' SOUTH. Objecting to is an affair either of caprice or necessity; some capriciously object to that which is proposed to them merely from a spirit of opposition; others object to a thing from substantial reasons; 'Men in all deliberations find ease to be of the negative side, to object, and foretel difficulties.' BACON.

TO OBJECT, OPPOSE.

To object, from ob and jacio to cast, is to cast in the way; to oppose is to place in the way; there is, therefore, very little original difference, except that casting is a more momentary and sudden proceeding, placing is a more premeditated action; which distinction, at the same time, corresponds with the use of the terms in ordinary life: to object to a thing is to propose or start something against it; but to oppose it is to set oneself up steadily against it: one objects to ordinary matters that require no reflection; one opposes matters that call for deliberation, and afford serious reasons for and against: a parent objects to his child's learning the classics, or to his running about the streets; he opposes his marriage when he thinks the connexion or the circumstances not desirable: we object to a thing from our own particular feelings; we oppose a thing because we judge it improper; capricious or selfish people will object to every thing that comes across their own humour; About this time, an Archbishop of York objected to clerks (recomignorant of English. TYRWHITT. mended to benefices by the Pope), because they were ignorant of English.' TYRWHITT. Those who oppose think it necessary to assign, at least, a reason for their opposition;

'Twas of no purpose to oppose,

She'd hear to no excuse in prose. SWIFT.

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OBJECTION, DIFFICULTY, EXCEPTION. The objection (v. Demur) is here general; it comprehends both the difficulty and the exception, which are but species of the objection: the objection and the difficulty are started; the exception is made: the objection to a thing is in general that which renders it less desirable; but the difficulty is that which renders it less practicable; there is an objection against every scheme which incurs a serious risk; I would not desire what you have written to be omitted, unless I had the merit of removing your objection.' POPE. The want of means to begin, or resources to carry on a scheme, are serious difficulties; In the examination of every great and comprehensive plan, such as that of Christianity, difficulties may occur.' BLAIR. In application to moral or intellectual subjects, the objection interferes with one's decision; the difficulty causes perplexity in the mind; They mistake diffi

culties for impossibilities; a pernicious mistake certainly, and the more pernicious, for that men are seldom convinced till their convictions do them no good.' SOUTH. There is ever between all estates a secret war. I know well this speech is the objection, and not the decision; and that it is after refuted.' BACON. The objection and exception both respect the nature, the moral tendency, or moral consequences of a thing; but the objection may be frivolous or serious; the exception is something serious: the objection is positive; the exception is relatively considered, that is, the thing excepted from other things, as not good, and consequently objected to. Objections are made sometimes to proposals for the mere sake of getting rid of an engagement: those who do not wish to give themselves trouble find an easy method of disengaging themselves, by making objections to every proposition; "Whoever makes such objections against an hypothesis, hath a right to be heard, let his temper and genius be what it will.' BURNET. Lawyers make exceptions to charges which are sometimes not sufficiently substantiated; When they deride our ceremonies as vain and frivolous, were it hard to apply their exceptions, even to those civil ceremonies, which at the coronation, in parliament, and all courts of justice, are used.' CRANMER. In all engagements entered into, it is necessary to make exceptions to the parties, whenever there is any thing exceptionable in their characters: the present promiscuous diffusion of knowledge among the poorer orders is very objectionable on many grounds; the course of reading, which they commonly pursue, is without question highly exceptionable.

TO CONTRADICT, OPPOSE, DENY. To contradict, from the Latin contra and dictum, signifies a speech against a speech; to oppose, in French opposer, Latin opposui, perfect of oppono, from op or ob and pono, signifies to throw in the way or against a thing; to deny, in French denier, Latin denego, is compounded of de, ne, and ago or dico, signifying to say no.

To contradict, as the origin of the word sufficiently denotes, is to set up assertion against assertion, and is therefore a mode of opposition, whether used in a general or a particular application. Logicians call those propositions contradictory which, in all their terms, are most completely opposed to each other; as All men are liars; No men are liars.' A contradiction necessarily supposes a verbal, though not necessarily a personal, opposition; a person may unintentionally contradict himself, as is frequently the case with liars; and two persons may contradict each other without knowing what either has asserted; The Jews hold that in case two rabbies should contradict one another, they were yet bound to believe the contradictory assertions of both.' SOUTH.

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But although contradicting must be more or less verbal, yet, in an extended application of the term, the contradiction may be implied in the action rather

in direct words, as when a person by his good conduct contradicts the slanders of his enemies; There are many who are fond of contradicting the common reports of fame.' ADDISON. In this application, contradict and oppose are clearly distinguished from each other. So likewise in personal disputes contradiction implies opposition only as far as relates to the words; opposing, on the other hand, comprehends not only the spirit of the action, but also a great diversity in the mode; we may contradict from necessity, or in self-defence; we oppose from conviction, or a less honorable nature; honorable nature; we contradict by a direct negative; we oppose by means of argument or otherwise. It is a breach of politeness ever to contradict flatly; it is a violation of the moral law to oppose without the most substantial grounds;

To contradict and to deny may be both considered as modes of verbal opposition, but one contradicts an assertion, and denies a fact; the contradiction implies the setting up one person's authority or opinion against that of another; the denial implies the maintaining a person's veracity in opposition to the charges or insinuations of others. Contradicting is commonly employed in speculative matters; ployed in speculative matters; If a gentleman is a little sincere in his representations, he is sure to have a dozen contradicters.' SWIFT. Denying in matters of personal interest; One of the company began to rally him (an infidel) upon his devotion on shipboard, which the other denied in so high terms, that it produced the lie on both sides, and ended in a duel.' ADDISON. Denying may, however, be employed as well as contradicting in the course of argument; but we deny the general truth of the position by contradicting the particular assertions of the individuals; In the Socratic way of dispute, you agree to every thing your opponent advances; in the Aristotelic, you are still denying and contradicting some part or other of what he says.' ADDISON.

When contradict respects other persons, it is frequently a mode of opposition, as we may most effectually oppose a person by contradicting what he asserts; but contradiction does not necessarily imply opposition; the former is simply a mode of action, the latter comprehends both the action and the spirit, with which it is dictated: we contradict from necessity or in self-defence; we oppose from conviction or some personal feeling of a less honorable nature. When we hear a friend unjustly charged of an offence, it is but reasonable to contradict the charge; objectionable measures may call for opposition, but it is sometimes prudent to abstain from opposing what we cannot prevent.

Contradict is likewise used in denying what is laid to one's charge; but we may deny without contradicting, in answer to a question: contradiction respects indifferent matters; denying is always used in matters of immediate interest.

Contradiction is employed for correcting others; denying is used to clear one's self: we may contradict falsely when we have not sufficient ground for contradicting; and we may deny justly when we rebut an unfair charge.

TO DENY, DISOWN, DISCLAIM,
DISAVOW.

Deny (v. To deny) approaches nearest to the sense of disown when applied to persons; disown, that is, not to own, on the other hand, bears a strong analogy to deny when applied to things.

In the first case deny is said with regard to one's knowledge of or connexion with a person; disowning on the other hand is a term of larger import, including the renunciation of all relationship or social tie: the former is said of those who are not related; the latter of such only as are related. Peter denied our Saviour; We may deny God in all those acts that are morally good or evil; those are the proper scenes in which we act our confessions or denials of him.' SOUTH. A parent can scarcely be justified in disowning his child let his vices be ever so enormous; a child can never disown its parent in any case without violating the most sacred duty.

In the second case deny is said in regard to things that concern others as well as ourselves; disown only in regard to what is done by one's self or that in which one is personally concerned. A person denies that there is any truth in the assertion of another; The Earl of Strafford positively denied the words. CLARENDON. He disowns all participation in any affair;

Then they who brother's better claim disown, Expel their parents, and usurp the throne. Dryden. We may deny having seen a thing; we may disown that we did it ourselves. Our veracity is often the only thing implicated in a denial; our guilt, innocence, or honor are implicated in what we disown. A witness denies what is stated as a fact; the accused party disowns what is laid to his charge.

A denial is employed only for outward actions or events; that which can be related may be denied : disowning extends to whatever we can own or possess ; we may disown our feelings, our name, our connexions,

and the like.

any

Christians deny the charges which are brought against the gospel by its enemies; If, like Zeno, any one shall walk about and yet deny there is motion in nature, surely that man was constituted for Anticyra, and were a fit companion for those who, having a conceit they are dead, cannot be convicted unto the society of the living.' BROWN. The apostles would never disown the character which they held as messengers of Christ;

Sometimes lest man should quite his pow'r disown,
He makes that pow'r to trembling nations known.
JENYNS.

Disclaim and disown are both personal acts respecting the individual who is the agent: to disclaim is to throw off a claim, as to disown is not to admit as one's own; as claim, from the Latin clamo, signifies to declare with a loud tone what we want as our own; so to disclaim is with an equally loud or positive tone, to give up a claim: this is a more positive act than to disown, which may be performed by insinuation, or by the mere abstaining to own.

He who feels himself disgraced by the actions that are done by his nation, or his family, will be ready to disclaim the very name which he bears in common with the offending party;

The thing call'd life, with ease I can disclaim,

And think it over-sold to purchase fame. DRYDEN. An absurd pride sometimes impels men to disown their relationship to those who are beneath them in external rank and condition;

Here Priam's son, Deïphobus, he found:
He scarcely knew him, striving to disown

His blotted form, and blushing to be known. DRYDEN.

To disavow is to avow that a thing is not. disavowal is a general declaration; the denial is a particular assertion; the former is made voluntarily and unasked for, the latter is always in direct answer to a charge: we disavow in matters of general interest where truth only is concerned; we deny in matters of personal interest where the character or feelings are implicated.

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What is disavowed is generally in support of truth; what is denied may often be in direct violation of truth an honest mind will always disavow whatever has been erroneously attributed to it; Dr. Solander disavows some of those narrations (in Hawkesworth's voyages), or at least declares them to be grossly misrepresented.' BEATTIE. A timid person sometimes denies what he knows to be true from a fear of the consequences; "The king now denied his knowledge of the conspiracy against Rezzio, by public proclama tions.' ROBERTSON. Many persons have disavowed being the author of the letters which are known under the name of Junius; the real authors who have denied their concern in it (as doubtless they have) availed themselves of the subterfuge, that since it was the affair of several, no one individually could call himself the author.

TO CONTROVERT, DISPUTE.

Controvert, compounded of the Latin contra and verto, signifies to turn against another in discourse, or direct one's self against another.